The Hebrew and the Greek that is usually directly translated as “kiss” in English is translated more indirectly in other languages because kissing is deemed as inappropriate, is not a custom at all, or is not customary in the particular context (see the English translation of J.B. Phillips [publ. 1960] in Romans 16:16: “Give each other a hearty handshake”). Here are some examples:
Pökoot: “greet warmly” (“kissing in public, certainly between men, is absolutely unacceptable in Pökoot.”) (Source: Gerrit van Steenbergen)
Pitjantjatjara: “when you meet/join up with others of Jesus’ relatives hug and kiss them [footnote], for you are each a relative of the other through Jesus.” Footnote: “This was their custom in that place to hug and kiss one another in happiness. Maybe when we see another relative of Jesus we shake hands and rejoice.” (esp. Rom. 16:16) (source for this and two above: Carl Gross)
Kamba: “greet with the greeting of love” (source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
Mende: “embrace” (“greet one another with the kiss of love”: “greet one another and embrace one another to show that you love one another”) (source for this and two above: Rob Koops)
Gen: “embrace affectionately” (source: John Ellington)
Kachin: “holy and pure customary greetings” (source: Gam Seng Shae)
Kahua: “smell” (source: David Clark) (also in Ekari and Kekchí, source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
Chichewa: “suck” (“habit and term a novelty amongst the young and more or less westernized people, the traditional term for greeting a friend after a long absence being, ‘clap in the hands and laugh happily'”)
Medumba: “suck the cheek” (“a novelty, the traditional term being ‘to embrace.'”)
Elhomwe: “show respect by hugging” (source: project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Balinese: “caress” (source for this and three above: Reiling / Swellengrebel; Vidunda: project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Tsafiki: earlier version: “greet in a friendly way,” later revision: “kiss on the face” (Bruce Moore [in: Notes on Translation 1/1992, p. 1ff.] explains: “Formerly, kissing had presented a problem. Because of the Tsáchilas’ [speakers of Tsafiki] limited exposure to Hispanic culture they understood the kiss only in the eros context. Accordingly, the original translation had rendered ‘kiss’ in a greeting sense as ‘greet in a friendly way’. The actual word ‘kiss’ was not used. Today ‘kiss’ is still an awkward term, but the team’s judgment was that it could be used as long as long as it was qualified. So ‘kiss’ (in greeting) is now ‘kiss on the face’ (that is, not on the lips).)
In the German New Testament translation by Berger / Nord (publ. 1999) it is translated as heiliger Kuss or “holy kiss” in the epistles. The translators note (p. 62): “It is possible that this is an early practice in which Christians communicate the Holy Spirit to one another or rekindle it.”
Following is a back-translation of Ruth 1 from a song presented in the traditional Fang troubadour style (mvét oyeng) as part of a project by Bethany and Andrew Case. (For more information about this, see Case / Case 2019)
Verse 1 – It happened that, in the time of the chiefs, they were governing Israel, and hunger came there to the regions of those lands.
2 – It came about that a man of the town that they call Bethlehem, the clans of the lands of Ephrata, they called him Elimelek.
Then he moved from there, he moved, saying, “I will try to go and live in the regions of the lands of Moab.”
When he went there, he went with [his] wife, [his] wife Naomi, and his two sons, his grown sons.
One was named Mahlon, and the other was Kilion.
All those were people of Ephrata.
After they arrived in Moab there, then they lived there, living.
3 – It came about that Elimelek, Naomi’s husband, died, and Naomi was left a widow. (Click or tap here to see the rest.
4/5 – Left like that, [with] only just one thing her two sons, when they were left, then these two sons also married two girls, young Moabite women.
One of them was named Orpah, and the other was named Ruth.
And it came about that after ten years passed, ten years, then these two sons of hers also died there, beginning with Malon and Kilion.
Then Naomi was left only all alone [lit. point and point: a bird’s beak from which its worm has fallen] with nothing.
6 – Then it came about that Naomi, living in Moab [unclear].
There she found out that Yahweh had had compassion on her town’s/people’s pain, the famine had ended, ending.
7 – Then Naomi said there that, “right now, I’m going back to Judah.”
When she was returning, then she went together with her two daughter-in-laws.
They left the place where they were and at that time they went.
8 – When they were walking on the road, then she said to them, “Oh my daughters-in-law, go back to your houses, to the houses of your mothers, please go back.”
9 – “I ask Yahweh that he treat you well at all times just like you also treated me and my sons.”
“I continually repeatedly again and again ask that Yahweh give you a place that is just and solid/secure, that he give you homes and also give you new husbands.”
Then Naomi kissed them on the cheeks, a goodbye kiss.
10 – Then the girls wept and they said “We will not go back, oh Naomi, we will go with you to your land.”
11 – Then Naomi insisted again, and said to them, “O my daughters, please go back.”
“Do you really wish to return with me, to go and do what?”
I can no longer again have other children for them to again marry you, please go back to your homes.
12 – I am too old, I cannot again go into marriage.
Even if I did also go into it, and bear two sons this night, oh my daughters, would you begin to wait again for these sons, for them to be your husbands?
13 – In this time you are without husbands, and for how long?
No no, oh my daughters, my evil is too great, and surpasses yours [lit. my evil it exaggerates with bigness to pass this with yours].
The hand of Yahweh has struck me, striking.”
14 – Then they opened their mouths (wept), they were crying.
After they finished crying, then Orpha afterward went to kiss [her] mother-in-law, kissing goodbye.
Then Ruth, she insisted to her that she would not go.
15 – Then Naomi said to her, “Look, the other has gone to her people.
Go youuuu too with her to the place where your gods are, go with her.”
Ñeŋǃ
16 – Then Ruth answered her, “Don’t you ask me that I separate from you.
Don’t you ask me that I separate from you.”
Because the place where you go, to it also I will go.
The place where you’re going to live, there also I am going to live.
Your people this also will be my people.
Your god this too will be my god.
17 – The place where you will die, in this also I will die, I tell you truly (lit. truth and truth).
I say that may Yahweh strike me, may he punish me severely (lit. [punish me with real punishment]) if I separate from you except only that death do it.”
18 – Then it happened that, when Naomi saw that Ruth insisted [with] real insistence [firmness], she didn’t insist anymore, then she said, “Let’s go”.
They began to walk, they’re going, they’re going.
19 – When it happened that they have already entered Bethlehem, that they have already arrived.
Then there in the town people began going and looking, [saying], “wow, but who is this?
Who is this?
Is it not Naomi who’s coming over there?
Yes, wow, it is Naomi.
Aáaáaáa
Aaáǃ
20 – After Naomi knew that she was the one they were talking about, then she said, “Don’t call me again Naomi.
Naomi means I have a glad heart, I am well.
And now that I’m here, please call me Mara because God Almighty has given me bitter and bitter, bitter and bitter, this has filled my body.
21 – When I left here to go, I left here [with] my hands full.
When I was returning now, I was coming [with] my hands now emptied, because thus Yahweh has wanted it, so why do you again call me Naomi?
When Yahweh, he who is all-powerful has lowered me to the ground, this kind of punishment that I have here.”
22 – In that way, Naomi returned to Moab with her daughter-in-law Ruth, she who is a young Moabite woman.
In that way, they arrived in Bethlehem, finding that the time of harvesting food had arrived.
The translation of the tetragrammaton (YHWH or יהוה) is easily the most often discussed issue in Bible translation. This is exemplified by the fact that there is virtually no translation of the Bible — regardless of language — where the position of the respective translator or translation team on how to translate the name of God into the respective language is not clearly stated in the preface or introduction.
Click or tap here to read about the different ways the tetragrammaton is and has been translated
The literature on this topic is overwhelming, both as far as the meaning of YHWH and the translation of it by itself and in combination with other terms (including Elohim and Adonai). There is no reason or room to rehash those discussions. Aside from various insightful translations of YHWH into various languages (see below), what’s of interest in the context of this tool are official and semi-official statements regarding the translation by Bible translation agencies and churches. These include the 1992 statement by United Bible Societies’ “Names of God” Study Group (see The Bible Translator 1992, p. 403-407 ) or the “Letter to the Bishops’ Conference on ‘The Name of God'” by the Congregatio de Cultu Divino et Discriplina Sacramentorum of 2008 (see here et al.).
In summary, the UBS study group gives six different options on how to translate YHWH: 1) transliterate (some form of “Yahweh” or “Jehovah” if this is an already established term); 2) translate (along the lines of kurios — κύριος in the Septuagint); 3) translate the meaning of YHWH; 4) use a culture-specific name; 5) translate Elohim and YHWH in the same way; or 6) use a combination of any of these options.
The official Catholic directive states that for liturgical purposes YHWH is to be translated as an equivalent of Kurios (“Lord”) unless when appearing in combination with Elohim (“God”) or Adonai (“lord”), in which case it’s to be translated with “God.”
In the following collection of examples, any of the above-mentioned strategies are used.
Use of Typographical Means to Offset the Name of God
A large number of Bible translations in many Western European languages have used a similar strategy to translate YHWH as an equivalent of Kurios or Adonai (“lord” in Greek in Hebrew) but have used either small caps or all caps to denote these occurrences as an equivalent to a proper name. Here are some examples:
None of the European languages have found a “cultural-linguistic equivalent” with the possible exception of Eternal or l’Éternel (see below).
The rendering of the translation of YHWH in bold (and uppercase) characters is for instance used in Guhu-Samane: QOBEROBA (a term of address for a respected person and also connotes “forever”) (for “forever”, see below under Translations of the Name of God) and the upper-casing in Bible translations in several other languages in Papua New Guinea:
In Cebuano (Ang Pulong sa Dios edition, 2010) and Hiligaynon (all versions), Ginoo, a typographical variant of Ginoo (“Lord”) is used. Bible translation consultant Kermit Titrud (SIL): “‘Yahweh’ is too close to Yahwa, their word for ‘Satan.’ We were afraid that in the pulpits readers might misread ‘Yahweh’ and say ‘Yahwa.’ So we went with the tradition found in most English translations. Ginoo for ‘Yahweh’ and Ginoo for ‘adonai.'”
In languages where capitalization is not a typographical option, other options are available and used, such as in Japanese, where the generic term shu 主 for “Lord” is bolded in some translations to offset its meaning (Source: Omanson, p. 17).
In Pattani Malay, the word for “Lord” is underlined: ربي. (Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
A graphical way of representation beyond typography was used by André Chouraqui in his French La Bible hebraique et le Nouveau Testament (publ. 1974-1977) for which he superimposed adonai and Elohim over (the French rendition) of the tetragrammaton:
(Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin in Noss / Houser, p. 618ff.; see also tempt God / put God to the test)
Translations of the Name of God
A translation of YHWH with a rendering of the meaning of “Eternal” was done in English by James Moffatt (between 1926 and 1935) with Eternal, The Voice translation with Eternal One (2012), in French versions as L’ÉTERNEL by J. F. Ostervald in 1904 or l’Éternel by L. Segond (1910-1938, not in more recent revisions) and Zadoc Kahn (1964) (for the French translation, see also LORD of hosts), in Esperanto as “la Eternulo,” and in Obolo as Okumugwem: “The Ever-Living” (source: Enene Enene). In francophone Africa, translations of l’Éternel are widely used, due to the wide use of Segond’s early editions (see above). Examples include Nancere (Nandjéré) with Kumuekerteri, Ngambay (Ngambaï) with Njesigənea̰, Sar with Kɔ́ɔ̄ɓē, Mbay (Mbaï) with Bïraþe, Kim with Bage ɗiŋnedin, or Lélé uses Gojɛnɛkirɛkindiy (verbatim: “who remains for his eyes”). (Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
Similarly and at the same time expanding its meaning, the Nzima translation of 1998 translated YHWH as Ɛdεnkεma, the “Eternal All-Powerful Creator and Sustainer” (Source: David Ekem in The Bible Translator 2005, p. 72ff. ).
“Creator” is also used in Kazakh (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан]), Karakalpak (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан], sometimes in combination with Iyeg [Ийег] — “Master”), and Kirghiz (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан], likewise in combination with “Master” or Ege [Эге]). (Source: David Gray).
Nepali, Bengali, and Hindi are all derived from Sanskrit and have (eventually) all found similar translations of YHWH. In Bengali “God” is translated as Ishwar (ঈশ্বর) (widely used in Hindu scriptures, where it’s used as a title, usually associated with “Siva”) and YHWH as Shodaphrobhu (সদাপ্রভু) — “Eternal Lord”; in Nepali and NewariYHWH is translated as Paramaprabhu (परमप्रभु)– “Supreme Lord”; and Hindi translates YHWH as Phrabu (प्रभु) — “Lord.” In earlier translations all three languages used transliterations of Jehovah or Yahweh. (Source: B. Rai in The Bible Translator 1992, p. 443ff. and Barrick, p. 124).
The influential German Jewish translation of Martin Buber and Franz Rosenzweig (between 1925 and 1961) translates YHWH in Exodus 3:15 with “Ich bin da” (“I exist” or “I am”) and in all other instances with pronouns in small caps (Er, Ihm, Ihn, Ich — “he,” “him,” “his,” “I”).
The Jewish orthodox English ArtScroll Tanach translation (publ. 2011) uses Hashem or “The Name”
In the Bavarian translation by Sturmibund (publ. 1998), it is translated as Trechtein or “Sovereign, Lord.” “Trechtein” is related to the obsolete English “drighten.” (Source: Zetzsche)
In Ge’ez, Tigrinya, and Amharic it is translated with Igziabeher (እግዚአብሔር) or “Ruler/Lord of the Nations/Peoples.” In Ge’ez Igziabeher is used for “God” as well, whereas in Tigrinya and Amharic it is often, but not always used for “God.” In a recent revision by Biblica (see here ), an attempt was made to use Igziabeher exclusively for occurrences of the tetragrammaton in the Hebrew Bible, but after strong responses by the Christian community, a compromise was found by using Igziabeher in the first chapter of Genesis and changing it according to the Hebrew text elsewhere. (Source: Zetseat Fekadu)
Warlpiri uses Kaatu Jukurrarnu (Kaatu is a transcription of “God” and Jukurrarnu means “timelessness” and shares a root with jukurrpa — dreamings) (Source: Stephen Swartz, The Bible Translator 1985, p. 415ff. ).
The translation of YHWH into Weri with Aniak Tupup or “man of the holy house” intends “to maintain the Jewish practice of not uttering God’s name [with] the use of another vernacular phrase that signals that a ‘taboo’ name is being referred [which] could give a cue that would be recognizable in written or oral communication” (Source: P. King, The Bible Translator 2014, p. 195ff. ).
Aruamu translates it as Ikiavɨra Itir God or “Ever Present God” (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Idakho-Isukha-Tiriki: Nyasaye Wuvunyali Muno or “God powerful great” (source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
Ruund uses Chinawej, a term that is otherwise used as a response of approval. Anna Lerbak (in The Bible Translator 1954, p. 84ff. ) tells the genesis of this term (click or tap to see an explanation):
“The name ‘Jehovah’ had been used in some contexts, but I had the feeling that it did not mean much to the people, and when I asked the pastors they all said it didn’t, and worse, it very often confused people, especially in the villages. During the conversation it was suggested that the name Chinawej be used in the place of ‘Jehovah’, and this met with immediate approval. A few days later I was working on a Psalm in which ‘Jehovah’ was used frequently, so I wrote Chinawej in its place and then read the Psalm to them. The response was about like this: “That is it, now people will understand, that is how Chinawej is. The Jews call God ‘Jehovah’, we call Him Chinawej, it is the same God. but we know Him as Chinawej as the Jews know Him as ‘Jehovah’ “. They often call God Chinawej in prayer, it seems to indicate warmth and intimacy.
The same word is used in two other ways. It is the name of a snake which never attacks human beings. And it is used as a response of approval. When told of something they are pleased to hear, something they find good, just, helpful, generous, they often respond by saying, Chinawej. When they call God Chinawej, it indicates that they think of Him as One Who is good and just and generous towards them. When it was suggested at the committee that we use Chinawej in place of ‘Jehovah’ it was accepted immediately and unanimously.
Ebira has Eneyimavara. Eneyimavara was created by merging a praise phrase that was only used for the traditional deity Ohomorihi (see here), that had become the word for the Christian God: ene e yi ma vara or “the one that never changes.” “The translators came to the agreement that this praise name that describes the unchangeableness of God is very close in meaning to the probable meaning of YHWH.” (Source: David O Moomo in Scriptura 88 (2005), p. 151ff. )
The Uzbek Bible uses the term Ega (Эга) — “master, owner” in various forms (including Egam / Эгам for “my Owner” or Egamiz / Эгамиз for “our Owner.” (Click or tap to see an explanation):
Jim Zvara (2019, p. 6) explains: “The Uzbek term ega means owner or master (‘master,’ in the historical context of an owner-slave relationship). By extension, it is natural for an Uzbek to speak to or refer to God as Egam (‘my owner’/’master’). In the Uzbek context to be God’s slave is a positive way of understanding one’s relation to him. It suggests that one is in a dependent and obedient relationship to God. The team felt that this relational connection and what it implies fits well with the concept of YHWH as the God who is in a covenant relationship with his people. In the Uzbek context, the choice of Ega was deemed to be the best balance of natural language with meaningful translation.”
The Seediq Bible translation team chose Utux Tmninun (“the weaving god”) for their translation of YHWH. (Click or tap to see a retelling of the process of how that decision was reached):
“(…) The Seediq team requested that we spend time with them on key terms. They had compiled a list of key terms that they wanted input on, and we went through the list item by item. The most important item was how to deal with the divine name. They had tentatively translated it as Yehoba, transliterated from Jehovah, but they were also aware that this transliteration may not be accurate, and they were keen to explore other options.
“We explored various alternatives. Were they interested in following the ancient Jewish practice of substituting ‘Lord’ for the divine name? Would capitalising the letters help? Would they be bold enough to use ‘Yahweh,’ following the opinion of most Old Testament scholars who regard this as the correct pronunciation? Was it feasible to adopt a mixed approach in dealing with the divine name (…)? Each option had its advantages as well as disadvantages.
“In the midst of the discussion, a participant said, ‘Our ancestors, as well as we today, always call God by the term Utux Tmninun. I suggest we use this term.’ The term Utux Tmninun in the Seediq culture means ‘the weaving God.’ In their culture, God is the weaver, the one who weaves life together. All the participants were excited about this proposal. They tried this term with all the composite terms that involve the divine name, and it seemed to work well, so they decided tentatively to adopt this term. After the workshop, the participants went back to their villages and sought feedback from the wider community, and eventually they confirmed the use of the term Utux Tmninun as the rendering of the divine name.
Translating the divine name as Utux Tmninun, the weaving God, is a creative solution. This term is viewed very positively in the Seediq community. It also correlates well with the concept of God as the creator (Gen. 1-2) and as the weaver who formed our inward parts and knit us together in our mothers’ wombs (Ps. 139:13). It also has the advantage of portraying God beyond the traditional masculine form.
“Some may argue that since names are usually transliterated, we should do the same with YHWH, most likely pronounced ‘Yahweh.’ Unfortunately, due to the influence of Chinese Union Version for almost one hundred years now, Chinese Christians only know God as Yehehua. Attempts to change the term Yehehua to Yahweh have not been successful. This is a reality that the Seediq Christians have to live with.
“Others may argue on theological grounds that YHWH is not only the creator, but also the God of the covenant, hence any attempt to substitute another term for YHWH will not do justice to the Hebrew text. In the case of the Seediq translation, there are significant similarities between Utux Tmninun and YHWH, though the terms are not identical. This is a reality translators often have to struggle with. Exact correspondence is hard to come by. Often it is a matter of approximation, give and take. Besides theological considerations, one has to deal with the constraints of past traditions (‘Jehovah,’ in this instance), the biblical cultures and one’s own culture, and audience acceptance. Hopefully, by using Utux Tmninun for YHWH, the Seediq term will be transformed and take on the aspect of the covenant God as well.” (Source: Yu Suee Yan, The Bible Translator 2015, p. 316ff. )
Nyankore: Nyakubaho or “the one who is from within itself” (source: Bühlmann 1950, p. 146)
For the interconessional translation into Chichewa (publ. 1999) the term Chauta (“Great-One-of-the-Bow”) was chosen for YHWH (Click or tap to see the detailed story):
“The name Chauta, literally ‘Great-One-of-the-Bow’, i.e. [is] either the rainbow (descriptively termed uta-wa-Leza ‘the-bow-of-God’) or, less likely, the hunter’s bow. And yet Chauta was also distinct from Mulungu [“God”] in that it has reference to the specific tribal deity of the Chewa people — the God who ‘owns’ yet also ‘belongs to’ them — and hence it carries additional positive emotive overtones. Although research indicated that in an ancient traditional setting, Chauta too was probably associated with the indigenous ancestral rain cult, in the Christian era it has been progressively generalized to encompass virtually all religious contexts in which God may be either appealed to, proclaimed, or praised. After prolonged deliberation, therefore, the translation committee determined Chauta to be the closest functional equivalent to YHWH of the Hebrew Scriptures. The choice of this name is not without its difficulties, however, and these were carefully considered by the Chewa committee. For example, the use of a more specific local term, as opposed to the generic Mulungu, carries a greater likelihood of bringing along with it certain senses, connotations, and situations that were (and no doubt still are) associated with the indigenous, pre-Christian system of worship. If these happened to remain strong in any contemporary sacred setting, then of course the dangers connected with conceptual syncretism might well arise. In the case of Chauta, however, it appeared that the process of positive Christian contextualization had already reached an advanced stage, that is, judging from the widespread use of this name in all aspects of religious life and practice. A more scholarly argument against Chauta takes the position that there is too great a female component associated with this term because it was traditionally applied (by figurative metonymy) to refer also to the ritual ‘wife of God’, i.e. the chief officiant at a traditional rain shrine and worship sanctuary. However, this usage seems to be quite remote, and most people questioned do not even recognize the connection anymore. Besides, in a matrilineal society such as the Chewa, it does not seem inappropriate to have this aspect of meaning lying in the background, particularly since it is not completely foreign to the notion of God in the Bible (cf. Ps. 36:7; 73:15; Isa. 49:14-15; Mt. 23:37). In terms of ‘connotative fit’ or emotive identification and appeal, there can be little doubt that the name Chauta is by far the closest natural equivalent to YHWH in the contemporary Chewa cultural and religious environment. This aspect of meaning was probably also utmost from the ancient Jewish perspective as well; in other words, “for them the associated meaning of this special name [YHWH], in terms of their history and culture, far outweighed any meaning it may have suggested because of its form or derivation”. To be sure, this ‘new’ divine name — that is, new as far as the Scriptures are concerned — may take some getting used to, especially in the formal setting of public worship. But this is not a foreign god whom we are talking about; rather, he is certainly by now regarded as the national deity of the Chewa nation. Chauta is the great God who for one reason or another ‘did not make himself known to them by his holy name, the LORD’ (Exod. 6:3), that is, in the prior translations of his Word into Chewa. He is, however, and always has been “a God who saves … the LORD (Chauta), our Lord, who rescues us from death” (Ps. 68:20, Good News Bible)!” (Source: Wendland 1998, 120f.; see also The Bible Translator 1992, 430ff. )
Transliteration of YHWH
A 12th century reading of the Masoretic vowel points around יהוה (יְהֹוָה) was interpreted to be pronounced as Yehowah from which Iehouah and Jehovah were derived. This was reflected in the English versions of Tyndale (publ. 1530) and the Geneva Bible (significantly based on Tyndale and publ. in 1560) and again the King James Version (Authorized Version) (publ. 1611) which all used Iehouah or Jehovah in 7 different verses in the Old Testament. The translators and editors of the American Standard Version (publ. 1901), a review of the King James Version used Jehovah for all appearances of the tetragrammaton something that the Spanish Reina-Valera (publ. 1602) had already done as well.
In English versions, Yahweh as a transliteration of the tetragrammaton is used by the Catholic Jerusalem Bible (publ. 1966), the Protestant Holman Christian Standard Bible (publ. 2004) and the Legacy Standard Bible (publ. 2021). The Catholic translation by Knox (publ. 1949) occasionally uses Javé, “to make it a Latin name, to match all the other names in the Old Testament.” (Source Knox 1949, p. 80)
Mandinka for instance uses Yawe for YHWH. “The use of Yawe for YHWH is good and may be a trendsetter in this part of Africa.” (Source: Rob Koops)
In a group of related languages in another part of Africa an interesting development from a transliteration to a indigenous translation can be shown: In the Nandi Bible (1938) Jehovah was used as a translation for YHWH. Kamuktaindet (“The Powerful One”) was used as a translation for Elohim (“God”). This was taken over by a translation into the macrolanguage Kalenjin (1969) (intended to include the closely related Keiyo, Kipsigis, Markweeta, Nandi, Okiek, Sabaot, Terik, and Tugen). Sabaot, Markweeta, Tugen and Okiek later wanted there own translations. Both Sabaot and Markweeta use the indigenous word for “Creator” (Yēyiin in Sabaot and Iriin in Markweeta) to translate Elohim and YHWH of the Old Testament and Theos of the New Testament. The Kalenjin Bible has recently been revised to cater to Keiyo, Kipsigis, Nandi and Terik, and this revision has completely dropped Jehovah in favour of Kamuktaindet. (Source: Iver Larsen)
Early translations into Gilbertese faced a problem when transliterating “Jehovah” (a form of “Jehovah” was first used in Spanish Bible translations in 1569 and 1602): “There are only thirteen letters in the Kiribati alphabet: A, E, I, O, U, M, N, NG, B, K, R, T (pronounced [s] when followed by ‘i’), W For instance, ‘Jehovah’ is rendered Iehova, but Kiribati speakers can only pronounce it as ‘Iowa,’ since the phonemes [h] and [v] do not exist in Kiribati.” (source: Joseph Hong, The Bible Translator 1994, p. 329ff. .)
In a recent edition of a Thai translation (Thai Standard Version, publ. 2011) a combination of translation and transliteration is used: phra’ ya(h)we (h) (พระยาห์เวห์) (“Divine Yawe”). (Source: Stephen Pattemore)
In Nyarafolo Senoufo the transliteration is Yewe which also means “the being one” or “he that is.” David DeGraaf (in: Notes on Translation 3/1999, p. 34ff.) explains: “Since it is widely recognized that the vowels of the name are uncertain, another possible transliteration is Yewe. This proposal is in accord with the Nyarafolo rules of vowel harmony and is thus open to being understood as a normal nominalization in the language. Second, Yewe is exactly the word that would be formed by nominalizing the verb ‘to be’ in the class that includes sentient beings. Thus, Yewe can be understood as ‘the being one’ or ‘he that is’. This solution accords well with YHWH’s self-revelation to Moses in Exodus 3:14, ‘I am who I am.'”
In the Literary and Mandarin Chinese (Protestant) tradition the transliteration of “Jehovah” is historically deeply rooted, even though there are also some historical burdens (Click or tap to see more details):
“YHWH” is rendered in the Chinese Union Version — the most widely used Bible translation in China—as well as most other Chinese Bible translations as yehehua 耶和華. According to Chinese naming conventions, yehehua could be interpreted as Ye Hehua, in which Ye would be the family name and Hehua — “harmonic and radiant” — the given name. In the same manner, Ye would be the family name of Jesus (transliterated as yesu 耶穌) and Su would be the given name. Because in China the children inherit the family name from the father, the sonship of Jesus to God the Father, yehehua, would be illustrated through this. Though this line of argumentation sounds theologically unsound, it is indeed used effectively in the Chinese church.” (see Wright 1953, p. 298, see also Jesus).
“Ye 耶, an interrogative particle in classical Chinese, is part of the same phonetic series as ye 爺, which gives it a certain exchangeability. Ye 爺 carries the meaning “father” or is used as an honorable form of address. The choice of the first Bible translators to use the transliteration yehehua 爺火華 for Jehovah had a remarkable and sobering influence on the history of the 19th century in China by possibly helping to shape the fatal Taiping ideology, a rebellion that ended up costing an estimated 20 million lives.
“The founder of the Taiping rebellion, Hong Xiuquan, was given a tract (…) [that he used to] interpret a nervous breakdown he had had in 1837 as his “call” to be the “Messiah.” This “vision” that Hong experienced is likely to have had a direct correlation with the name of “God” in that tract. Shen yehuohua 神爺火華 (directly translated: ‘God (or: spirit); old man (or: father); fire; bright)” was the term that was used in that tract for ‘God Jehovah,’ but this was not indicated as a (in its second part) transliteration of a proper name. In his vision, Hong saw ‘a man venerable in years (corresponding with ye), with golden (corresponding with huo and hua) beard and dressed in a black robe,’ an image likely to have been inspired by a direct translation from that name for ‘God,’ especially as it appeared at the beginning of the tract. That this term was considered to be a term of some relevance to the Taiping ideology is demonstrated by the fact that both yehuohua 爺火華 as the personal name of God and ye 爺 as “God the Father” later appeared in Taiping writings.” (Source: Zetzsche in Malek 2002, p. 141ff.)
In American Sign Language it is translated with a sign that combines the letter Y and a sign that points up and is similar to the sign for “God.” (Source: Ruth Anna Spooner, Ron Lawer)
“YHWH” in American Sign Language, source: Deaf Harbor
In British Sign Language is is translated with a sign that combines the signs for “God” and “name” and the finger-spelling of Y-H-W-H. (Source: Anna Smith)
“YHWH” in British Sign Language (source: Christian BSL, used with permission)
For further reading on the translation of YHWH, see Rosin 1956, p. 89-125 and Andy Warren-Rothlin in Noss / Houser, p. 618ff.
Adults, whether of the same or the opposite sex, do not kiss one another publicly in traditional African society. A mother, however, may affectionately kiss her small child or baby. One must therefore indicate the social significance of this act in the original; e.g., “she bid them farewell by kissing them.” The reason for the daughters’ “weeping” is also not clear from the text. Loud public crying or wailing is normally done only at the time of a funeral.
Following are a number of back-translations of Ruth 1:8-1:14:
Noongar: “But Naomi said to the two women, ‘You two, return to the houses of your mothers. May God bless you as you have blessed me and your dead husbands. May God bless and give you safety in the houses of your new husbands.’ She kissed them and they wept. They both said to her, ‘No, we will go with you to your people’. But Naomi said, ‘Go back to your homes, my daughters. Why will you come with me? I can have other sons in my womb, can I? They can become your husband, can they? Return, my daughters. I am an old woman. I am too old to marry another man. If I married today, and bore sons, you would wait for them to grow up, would you? And will you not marry other men? No, my daughters. This is more bitter for me, much more than for you, because the hand of God is hurting me.’ So they wept again. Orpah kissed her mother-in-law, but Ruth clung to her.” (Source: Bardip Ruth-Ang 2020)
Eastern Bru: “While they were beginning to go on the way there, Naomi said to her two daughters-in-law: ‘Now you go back to your original homes. I will pray to God to give you blessings, because you have loved me and you have loved your deceased husbands. Surely God will give you both to live in peace and have new husbands and families.’ When she had finished saying that, Naomi kissed her two daughters-in-law. Then they all cried together. But the two daughters-in-law said: ‘Not that, Mother! We want to go together with you, and go to your family.’ But Naomi answered them: ‘Why do you want to follow me? Do you think I can have other sons who could become your husbands? So, daughters-in-law, you both go back to your original families, because I am already old. I can not have another husband. If I had a husband this afternoon, and if I could bear more sons, do you want to wait for those sons to become adults? Could you wait that long? And would you not seek other husbands until my children were big enough for you to take them as your husbands? No, daughters-in-law. In my heart I feel sad for you, because God has done this to me.’ After that they wept together again. And Orpha kissed her mother-in-law and left her. But Ruth did not leave her mother-in-law.” (Source: Bru Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “’And may the LORD grant that you(pl) could-marry again so-that you(pl) could-settle in your(pl) new home.’ Then Noemi kissed them. They wept aloud and said to Noemi, ‘We(excl) will-go with you(sg) when you(sg) return to your(sg) fellow-countrymen.’ But Noemi said, ‘You(pl) return-home to your-(own place), children. Why would- you(pl) still -come-with me? Do- you(pl) -think I can-marry again and can-give-birth to males whom you(pl) could-marry? That would/could- not -happen because I am old now. But for instance I could-marry tonight and some-time-later can- still -give-birth, then-what, are you(pl) going-to-wait until they had-grown-up? You(pl) would not marry yet just because of them? (It is) not possible, children. The truth (is), my life is more bitter than yours(pl), because the LORD causes- me -to-suffer.’ They wept aloud again. Then Orpah kissed her mother-in-law and went-back-home,b but Ruth on-the-other-hand remained with Noemi.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
English: “Then as the three of them were walking, Naomi said to her two daughters-in-law, ‘Each of you should turn around and go back to your mother’s home. You treated your husbands kindly before they died, and you have treated me kindly. Now I desire that Yahweh will enable each of you to have another husband in whose home you will feel secure.’ Then she kissed both of them, and they cried aloud. They each said, ‘No, we want to go with you as you return to your relatives.’ But Naomi said, ‘No, my daughters, return home. [It will not do any good for you to come with me!/What good will it do for you to come with me?] Do you think I will get married again and have more sons who could become your husbands? Even if I thought I could have another husband, and even if I got married today and became pregnant tonight and later gave birth to sons, would you remain single/unmarried until they grew up and became old enough for you to marry? No, my daughters, you would not do that. Your situations are bad because your husbands have died, but it is possible that you will each marry again. My situation is much worse, because Yahweh has opposed me, and now I am too old to get married again.’ Then Ruth and Orpah cried again because of what Naomi said. Then Orpah kissed her mother-in-law goodbye, and left, but Ruth clung to Naomi.” (Source: Translation for Translators)
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Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between.
One way Japanese shows different degree of politeness is through the choice of a benefactive construction as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017. Here, yō ni shite (ようにして) or “do so (so that) / make it like” is used in combination with kudasaru (くださる), a respectful form of the benefactive kureru (くれる). A benefactive reflects the good will of the giver or the gratitude of a recipient of the favor. To convey this connotation, English translation needs to employ a phrase such as “for me (my sake)” or “for you (your sake).”
The phrase make it possible (Hebrew: “give”) may be rendered in a number of languages as a causative: “may the LORD cause you to marry again” or “may the LORD give you other husbands.” Hebrew has literally: “The LORD give you that you may find a restingplace, each of you in the house of her husband.” The syndetic combination of syntactically different clauses (see Joüon, par. 177) in verse 9a already created difficulties for early translators. In a number of Greek and Syriac manuscripts, chesed has been added to lakem in order to get an easier syntactic construction. The Syriac reading “in the house of your fathers” may have been found ad hoc for the same reasons.
The Hebrew word here rendered home literally means “resting place.” Elsewhere in the Old Testament it is employed as a reference to the promised land (Deut 12.9; 1 Kgs 8.56; Psa 95.11) and to Zion as the place where Yahweh dwells (Psa 132.8, 14). In this context the translation home is particularly appropriate, since the Hebrew word carries the meanings of peace and happiness as well as of security, all of which are regarded as the result of marriage (cf. 3.1). It is not enough to translate “have a house,” since widows could possess houses. What is referred to here is a home with a husband. The equivalent in some languages is “to live in a house with your husband.”
In some languages it is quite improper to translate Naomi kissed them, for kissing is regarded only as an expression of sexual interest or involvement. Under such circumstances one must use some such expression as “to embrace,” “to place one’s arms around,” or “to hold tenderly.”
Even when one can refer to kissing, it is sometimes necessary to mark the kissing as an expression of parting, Naomi kissed them good-bye, and to introduce a verb of speaking before the term good-bye; for example, “So Naomi kissed them and said good-bye to them.” In some languages the term for good-bye is quite idiomatic: “I leave my heart with you” or “until we see each other again.” But in other languages the expression for good-bye is quite matter of fact; for example, “Now I am leaving.”
They started crying is literally in Hebrew “they lifted up their voices and wept.” The idiom “to lift up the voice” can rarely be translated literally, and the combined expression in Hebrew simply means loud sobbing. See Brown-Driver-Briggs, s.v. nasaʾ.
It may be necessary to indicate in some languages that they in the last clause in verse 9 refers to the daughters-in-law, since it could presumably be a reference to Naomi as well as to her daughters-in-law, because of the deep emotional attachment. However, the beginning of verse 10 makes it quite clear that it is only the daughters-in-law who began to weep.
The translation of the negative No, which may be considered explicit in the Hebrew text, Brockelmann (k Syntax, par. 134a) and Campbell accept that both ki and loʾ ki can be used as a negation. is particularly difficult in some languages, for it might imply that they did not wish to receive the blessing which Naomi had given to them. That, of course, is not the meaning; and it may be necessary to expand the negative to read “Do not say good-bye to us” or “We do not wish to leave you.”
The Hebrew text literally has “return” in the second clause of verse 10, but since the daughters-in-law did not really “return” to Judah (in the sense that they had been there before), it is better to employ some such expression as in Good News Translation, We will go with you.
In some languages to your people may be rendered most effectively as “to your tribe” or even “to your clan.”
Quoted with permission from de Waard, Jan and Nida, Eugene A. A Handbook on Ruth. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1978, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
May the LORD enable each of you to find rest: This clause is a continuation of the blessing from 1:8b. The clause is more literally “May Yahweh give to you and find rest [each] woman.” The syntax is unusual. In Hebrew, the wish/prayer “May Yahweh give to you” has no object. Also, the verb find is a command form. There are two main interpretations of this clause:
(1) The phrase “and find rest” is not a command. Rather, it is the object of the prayer “May Yahweh give to you.” For example:
May the Lord grant that each of you find security. (Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures)
(2) The phrase “and find rest” is the consequence of the prayer “May Yahweh give to you.” For example:
May the Lord repay each of you so that you may find security. (God’s Word)
It is recommended that you follow interpretation (1) along with most versions.
May the LORD enable: This phrase is a wish/prayer of Naomi. Here are some other ways to translate it:
May the Lord give (New Century Version) -or-
May the Lord grant (New International Version) -or-
May the Lord bless you (New Living Translation (2004)) -or-
And may the Lord make it possible (Good News Translation)
each of you: This phrase makes explicit that Naomi’s wish/prayer is for the benefit of both of her daughters-in-law. For example:
for each of you (Good News Translation)
Some versions leave the phrase each of implied. For example:
May the Lord give you (New Century Version)
rest: In Hebrew, this word means either “rest” or “resting place.” Here it refers to a situation that is secure and free from anxiety “after wandering, uncertainty, and pain.”
Here are some other ways to translate this phrase:
that you may each find happiness (New Jerusalem Bible) -or-
the security (NET Bible)
in the home of your new husband: This phrase describes the kind of rest that Naomi wants for her daughters-in-law. The best way for a young widow to have security was to marry another husband.
to marry again and have a home (Good News Translation) -or-
with a husband! (New Jerusalem Bible)
1:9b
And she kissed them as they wept aloud: This clause describes Naomi’s gesture of farewell to her daughters-in-law before they parted ways.
Here are some ways to indicate the connection of 1:9b to the previous clauses. Either of these options is acceptable:
• Indicate that this clause talks about the next action in the story. For example:
And she kissed them farewell. (Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures) -or-
Then she kissed them goodbye (NET Bible)
• Indicate that this clause talks about the result of Naomi urging Orpah and Ruth to return to Moab and blessing them. For example:
So Naomi kissed them good-bye. (Good News Translation)
And she kissed them: This clause describes a leave-taking custom. She probably kissed them on both cheeks. This was a proper gesture of farewell in that culture. However, in some cultures, this kind of kiss may be considered to be improper or unusual.
Here are some other ways to translate this gesture:
• Add a footnote to explain the meaning. Here is a possible footnote example:
In that culture, a proper leave-taking gesture was to give a small kiss on both cheeks.
• Make explicit the purpose of the gesture in a general way. For example:
Then Naomi expressed a fond farewell to them
• Substitute a different gesture that has the same function in your language. For example:
Then they embraced in farewell
as they wept aloud: This clause describes what happened when Naomi kissed them goodbye. The phrase wept aloud means that they wept/cried loudly.
There are two ways to interpret the referents of the pronoun they in this clause:
(1) Orpah and Ruth wept aloud. For example:
but they began weeping loudly, 10and said, ‘No, we shall go back with you…” (New Jerusalem Bible)
(2) All three women wept aloud. For example:
and they all broke down and wept (New Living Translation (2004))
Some versions are ambiguous as to the interpretation that they follow. It is recommended that you follow interpretation (1) along with the majority of versions. Orpah and Ruth were distressed when Naomi kissed them good-bye, so they cried and told Naomi that they wanted to stay with her.
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