Some languages do not have a concept of kingship and therefore no immediate equivalent for the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin that is translated as “king” in English. Here are some (back-) translations:
Ninia Yali: “big brother with the uplifted name” (source: Daud Soesilio in Noss 2007, p. 175)
Nyamwezi: mutemi: generic word for ruler, by specifying the city or nation it becomes clear what kind of ruler (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Ghomála’: Fo (“The word Fo refers to the paramount ruler in the kingdoms of West Cameroon. He holds administrative, political, and religious power over his own people, who are divided into two categories: princes (descendants of royalty) and servants (everyone else).” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn))
Faye Edgerton retells how the term in Navajo (Dinė) was determined:
“[This term was] easily expressed in the language of Biblical culture, which had kings and noblemen with their brilliant trappings and their position of honor and praise. But leadership among the Navajos is not accompanied by any such titles or distinctions of dress. Those most respected, especially in earlier days, were their headmen, who were the leaders in raids, and the shaman, who was able to serve the people by appealing for them to the gods, or by exorcising evil spirits. Neither of these made any outward show. Neither held his position by political intrigue or heredity. If the headman failed consistently in raids, he was superceded by a better warrior. If the shaman failed many times in his healing ceremonies, it was considered that he was making mistakes in the chants, or had lost favor with the gods, and another was sought. The term Navajos use for headman is derived from a verb meaning ‘to move the head from side to side as in making an oration.’ The headman must be a good orator, able to move the people to go to war, or to follow him in any important decision. This word is naat’áanii which now means ‘one who rules or bosses.’ It is employed now for a foreman or boss of any kind of labor, as well as for the chairman of the tribal council. So in order to show that the king is not just a common boss but the highest ruler, the word ‘aláahgo, which expresses the superlative degree, was put before naat’áanii, and so ‘aláahgo naat’áanii ‘anyone-more-than-being around-he-moves-his-head-the-one-who’ means ‘the highest ruler.’ Naat’áanii was used for governor as the context usually shows that the person was a ruler of a country or associated with kings.”
Note that Good News Translation here inserts the words “He said” from the previous verse, for better style in English, and also for making it clearer that what follows are the words of the one explaining the vision and not of Daniel himself.
Are: in some languages the verb “to be” may not be appropriate to show the correspondence between the beasts and the kings or kingdoms. In those cases it may be better to say “resemble,” “depict,” “show,” “represent,” “stand for,” or something similar.
Kings: while the word here is literally kings, the individual kings represented the kingdoms over which they ruled. For this reason Moffatt, New International Version, New Jerusalem Bible, New American Bible, and New English Bible/Revised English Bible translate “kingdoms,” and Good News Translation has “empires.” In fact, one Aramaic manuscript as well as the ancient Greek and Latin actually has the word “kingdoms.” While this reading may not be adopted for textual reasons, there are valid translation reasons for using “kingdoms” or “empires” in some languages. Both Hebrew Old Testament Text Project and Critique Textuelle de l’Ancien Testament advocate translating the text that says “kings,” but under the “proposed interpretation” of Critique Textuelle de l’Ancien Testament the following is stated: “One may indicate in a note that each of the ‘kings’ in fact incarnates one of the empires which followed each other in the Ancient Near East.”
Shall arise out of the earth: the wording of Revised Standard Version may possibly be misunderstood as a reference to some kind of resurrection from the grave. But this is certainly not the meaning of the text. The verb arise indicates “rise to power,” “come into authority,” or “take (political) control.” And out of the earth may be translated “on the earth” (New American Bible), or the whole expression may be reworded “(four kingdoms) of earthly origin will take power” (Bible en français courant).
Quoted with permission from Péter-Contesse, René & Ellington, John. A Handbook on Daniel. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1994. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
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