cup

The Hebrew, Greek, and Latin that is translated as “cup” in English is translated in Sar with “calabash” (see here ) (source: Ngarbolnan Riminan in Le Sycomore 2000, p. 20ff. ) and in Bariai with “coconut shell” (source: Bariai Back Translation)

cormorant

Although the translation of shalak as “cormorant” has a tradition going back to the seventeenth century, there has always been considerable doubt about this translation. For one thing, the root of the word shalak means “to throw or hurl”, which would indicate that the bird with this name “throws” itself down onto its prey, something cormorants do not do. They swim low in the water and dive underwater to hunt their prey. This led the late G. R. Driver to suggest the translation “fisher owl”. However, there are problems with this suggestion too. The fisher owl, or more correctly, the Brown Fish Owl Scotopelia ceylonensis, is not likely to have been a bird that was well known, and its fishing habits would only have been seen by fishermen on moonlit nights, and that very rarely. The Israelites were not yet a fishing people in the period of the Exodus.

In modern Hebrew shalak is the name given to the Osprey Pandion haliaetus, which is a type of fishing eagle that plunges into the water from a height and catches fish in its claws. Some Israeli scholars have suggested that it may have been the ancient name for the Smyrna Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis, or the Gannet Sula bassana, both of which drop down from a height onto their prey, which they catch underwater in their beaks.

Since there is so much doubt about the identification of this bird, the translation “osprey” seems to have as much, if not more, justification than “cormorant”.

The White-necked Cormorant Phala-crocorax carbo, which is the most common type of cormorant in the Middle East, is a large bird with a long slim body and a long beak that is hooked at the tip. The adults are black all over with a small yellow pouch where the throat meets the beak. They also have yellow skin on their faces. This type of cormorant is found along the sea and lake coasts, along the larger rivers, and in swampy areas. It has webbed feet like a duck and swims in the water, but with most of the body under the water. It dives and can swim quite a long way underwater hunting fish.

Like all cormorants its feathers are not waterproof, and this enables it to swim underwater easily. However, it also means that after diving or swimming for a while, a cormorant has to come out of the water to dry out its wings. Thus cormorants can often be seen perched on logs or rocks, with their wings spread out to dry.

During the daytime they can usually be found in small groups of four or five, but in the evening when they roost in trees they come together in large numbers and are very noisy. In seasons when large shoals of small fish swim near the surface, large numbers of black cormorants can often be seen flying fast and low above the water in long lines one behind the other, searching for such a shoal. When they find it, they all land on the water together and feed in great excitement.

Apart from the fact that the shalak is found in the lists of unclean birds, it has no other significance in the Bible.

If the translator chooses to identify shalak as “cormorant”, it should not be difficult to find some species of cormorant locally, since cormorants are found all over the world near large bodies of water. The white-necked cormorant is in fact found not only in Israel but also near the coasts, lake shores, large rivers, and swamps throughout Europe, Asia, Australasia, Africa, and the eastern half of North America. In southern Africa a slightly different form of the white-necked cormorant is found, called the white-breasted cormorant. It has a white breast and throat and a smaller throat pouch, but has the same scientific name. Elsewhere there will be local species of cormorant, which can be identified by the habit of perching with wings spread out to dry.

White-breasted cormorant, Wikimedia Commons

Source: All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

yanshuf / tawny owl

Owls are found worldwide except in the Antarctic and on some islands. They are active at night and are characterized by flat faces and short hooked beaks that they can open very wide. They swallow their prey whole and later regurgitate the undigested parts as small balls. They also have the ability to turn their heads more than 180 degrees.

There are two basic owl families, both of which are found in the land of Israel. One family is the Tytonidae, which are the Barn and Grass Owls. They have heart-shaped whitish faces, usually outlined by a dark line, and small dark eyes. The other family is the Strigidae, the typical owls. This family contains a large variety of species, all of which have large eyes that may vary in color from light brown through orange to yellow. This family includes the eared or horned owls, the fairly rare fishing owls, and owls that vary in size from the midget scops owl (less than 20 centimeters [8 inches]) through to the giant eagle owl (over 70 centimeters [28 inches]).

Eight species of owl are fairly common in the land of Israel. Most are very seldom seen by humans, but they are quite well known by their different and distinct calls. In biblical times the nights would have been much quieter than in most modern places, and the strange night sounds probably would have interested people, causing some speculation about what was making the sound. The different owls would thus probably have had different names even if people had never seen them. In fact it is unlikely that they would have been able to associate most of the calls with the owls that were seen.

As with most of the owls, there is no complete agreement among the versions. It would appear at first that “screech owl” has strong support as the translation of yanshuf. However, this is misleading. The next Hebrew name on the list of unclean birds in Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 13:16 is tinshemeth, which New International Version renders “white owl” and New American Bible “barn owl”. In fact both white owl and barn owl are simply alternate names for the screech owl, which these two versions have included earlier in the list. They have thus actually listed the same owl twice. Among Jewish scholars the translation of tinshemet as barn owl has a long history, and in modern Hebrew this is the name of the barn owl. Thus it seems best to translate yanshuf in some other way.

There are two likely candidates. For translators who have translated the word tachmas earlier in the list as “eared owl”, yanshuf can be translated as “tawny owl”. For those who decided to follow modern Hebrew usage and translate tachmas as “nightjar”, it would be good to translate yanshuf as “eared owl”, which also follows modern Hebrew usage.

The Tawny Owl Strix aluco is a fairly rare bird in Israel, but where it is present, its call is unmistakable. The male calls with a series of hoots “HOO-hoo-hoo, hoo-HOO-hoo”, and the female replies with a higher pitched single hoot “HOO”. Its eyes are outlined with pale circles, so that it looks as though it is wearing spectacles. As its name indicates, it is a mottled gray-brown color. It prefers wooded areas or orchards and roosts close to the trunk of a tree.

It is listed as an unclean bird.

Owls very similar to the tawny owl, which belongs to the same family as Wood Owls Strigidae, are found in many places in the world. In sub-Saharan Africa the Wood Owl Strix woodfordii is very similar to the tawny owl, while in Australasia the Boobook Owl Ninox novaseelandiae is a good equivalent. Elsewhere the word for a medium-sized wood owl, or a phrase meaning “tawny-colored owl” can be used.

Tawny owl, Wikimedia Commons

Source: All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

kos / little owl

Owls are found worldwide except in the Antarctic and on some islands. They are active at night and are characterized by flat faces and short hooked beaks that they can open very wide. They swallow their prey whole and later regurgitate the undigested parts as small balls. They also have the ability to turn their heads more than 180 degrees.

There are two basic owl families, both of which are found in the land of Israel. One family is the Tytonidae, which are the Barn and Grass Owls. They have heart-shaped whitish faces, usually outlined by a dark line, and small dark eyes. The other family is the Strigidae, the typical owls. This family contains a large variety of species, all of which have large eyes that may vary in color from light brown through orange to yellow. This family includes the eared or horned owls, the fairly rare fishing owls, and owls that vary in size from the midget scops owl (less than 20 centimeters [8 inches]) through to the giant eagle owl (over 70 centimeters [28 inches]).

Eight species of owl are fairly common in the land of Israel. Most are very seldom seen by humans, but they are quite well known by their different and distinct calls. In biblical times the nights would have been much quieter than in most modern places, and the strange night sounds probably would have interested people, causing some speculation about what was making the sound. The different owls would thus probably have had different names even if people had never seen them. In fact it is unlikely that they would have been able to associate most of the calls with the owls that were seen.

Traditionally kos has been translated as “little owl”, and this is the meaning in modern Hebrew. The case for this translation is probably the strongest, even though not conclusive. If we accept this identification, the lists of unclean birds has a rather neat structure with this the smallest of the owls being paired with nets, the smallest of the birds of prey.

The Little Owl Athene noctua is, as its name suggests, a small owl, which feeds at night mainly on insects and nestlings. It is about 25 centimeters (10 inches) in length and has a short tail. It does not have ear tufts. It nests in holes in banks or termite hills. It is often seen in the daytime, usually being chased by a group of small birds.

It is listed as an unclean bird.

The little owl is found in southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and northeast Africa. Elsewhere one may use the name of a small species of owl or the phrase “little owl”.

Little owl, Wikimedia Commons

Source: All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

complete verse (Leviticus 11:17)

Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Leviticus 11:17:

  • Kupsabiny: “owls of various kinds, marabou stork,” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
  • Newari: “Among the birds, these are the ones that will be considered repulsive. For example, various types of eagles, vultures, hawks, crows, cranes, owls, swans ospreys, and bats. It is not OK to eat the flesh of these [birds].” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
  • Hiligaynon: “You (plur.) are- not -to-eat the birds that are-like eagles, crows/ravens; birds that eat a corpse of a person or an animal, falcons, owls, vultures, birds that swoop-down-upon/pounce-upon fish, a-sort-of-white-herons, storks/cranes, and fruit-eating-bats. You (plur.) are-to-consider these birds detestable.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
  • English: “small owls, cormorants, large owls,” (Source: Translation for Translators)

Translation commentary on Leviticus 11:13 - 11:19

These verses deal with the third category of creatures which the Hebrews considered “birds.” The terminology used in that day does not correspond exactly to that which is known in the modern world and may also be at variance with other views of what constitutes a “bird.” For example, in many languages the bat mentioned in verse 19 cannot be called a “bird.” The list is made up of no less than twenty species, which leads many commentators to believe that it was intended to be exhaustive (the parallel list in Deut 14.12-18 has twenty-one names). Ten of these names appear only here and in the Deuteronomy 14 list, but nowhere else in the Old Testament. Five others are found in only one additional case outside the two lists. For this reason it is extremely difficult to identify with any degree of certainty all the species involved. Even the ancient versions such as Greek and Latin demonstrate considerable differences in their translation of these names.

In Hebrew all the names on the list are given in singular form (compare Revised Standard Version), but Good News Translation has taken into account the fact that they are collective nouns and has made them plural in translation.

Since this is the beginning of the third group discussed in this chapter, a new paragraph should be started here. It may be well in many languages to use the same kind of introductory sentence as in verses 2b and 9. The passive formulation shall not be eaten may be rendered “You must not eat….”

The repetition of the idea they are an abomination (compare verse 10) is significant because it appears for emphasis. Unless these repetitions are unacceptably awkward in the receptor language, it will be well to retain them in translation.

Many of the names on this list are followed by the expression according to its kind (compare Gen 1), which seems to indicate that the species in question is divided into two or more subgroups. In one case (verse 15) the name is preceded by the word “all” or “any” (every raven in Revised Standard Version), but this does not really change the meaning. So it has been omitted in Good News Translation.

The second word in verse 18 is usually translated pelican because of the ancient Greek and Latin renderings, but some commentators find this unconvincing in the light of the fact that this same bird is mentioned in Isaiah 34.11, Zephaniah 2.14, and Psalm 102.7 as one living in the desert or in ruins. Perhaps the renderings of New International Version or New English Bible are more likely.

In some languages it may be necessary to translate several terms by a single word in the receptor language. For example, there may be only one word for the various kinds of owls mentioned in the list. Translators may then have to say “the different kinds of owls” or something similar. In other languages there may be no word for certain of the birds in the list. If this is the case, it may be necessary to resort to a borrowing which is explained in a footnote or glossary entry. And although the final term in the list may not be considered a bird in the receptor language, it must be remembered that it was apparently included in this category in ancient Jewish thinking. So it should be a part of the bird list in this passage and not be placed in a special category. Even though the receptor-language classification of birds may be entirely different from the Old Testament system, the translator must respect what is found in the text. But an explanatory footnote will certainly be acceptable.

Quoted with permission from Péter-Contesse, René and Ellington, John. A Handbook on Leviticus. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1990. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .