Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Isaiah 1:29:
Kupsabiny: “You will be ashamed when you remember those oaks where you sat and worshipped idols. You shall be disgraced over the gardens/fields that you set aside while making rituals there.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Newari: “Therefor "you have planted trees for worship, and because you have prepared gardens for idol worship, you are about to fall into shame.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “You (plur.) who are from-Jerusalem will-be-put-to-shame because of your (plur.) worshipping oak/[terebinto] trees and your (sing.) chosen fields/garden.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
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Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between.
One way Japanese shows different degree of politeness is through the choice of a formal plural suffix to the second person pronoun (“you” and its various forms) as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017. In these verses, anata-gata (あなたがた) is used, combining the second person pronoun anata and the plural suffix -gata to create a formal plural pronoun (“you” [plural] in English).
Before the time of Abraham at least five breeds of sheep had already been developed in Mesopotamia. From mummified remains (that is, preserved dead bodies) and ancient art it is also known that at least two different breeds had reached Egypt by about 2000 B.C. Thus it is likely that the sheep mentioned in the Bible were of more than one breed.
The Hebrew word kar seems to be used of imported foreign sheep and may refer to a special breed but some scholars think it refers to a wether (castrated ram), since this word is never used in the context of sacrifice. This word is also used for a battering ram, that is, a heavy pole suspended on a rope, used in war for breaking down walls. ’Ayil is the word for a ram or adult male sheep, rachel is a breeding ewe or female sheep, and taleh is a very young lamb, probably still unweaned. The remaining Hebrew words refer to sheep in general.
The Greek word probaton is the general word for sheep, or flocks that may include goats. Krios is the Greek word for a ram or male sheep. Pascha is a technical name for the Passover lamb exclusively, and the remaining Greek words all mean lamb. Ovis is the Latin word for sheep.
Click or tap here for the rest of this entry in United Bible Societies’ All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible.
The early Hebrews were nomadic shepherds to whom sheep were the most important domestic animal. While goats eat almost any vegetation, sheep are much more selective about the grasses and plants they eat. This meant that suitable grazing for them was not always easy to find, and shepherds had to keep moving their flocks from place to place. This led to a nomadic lifestyle, with movable tents rather than houses being the normal household shelter. It was not until the occupation of Canaan after the Exodus that the lifestyle of the Israelites changed, and they became settled village-dwelling farmers and fruit growers.
However, even then, most households owned sheep, and some family members would function as shepherds, often living away from home for fairly long periods.
Sheep in the Bible were a source of meat, milk, wool, hides, and horns, and it seems likely that various strains were bred selectively to enhance production of these commodities. Wool is mentioned in the Bible as early as the Mosaic Law, which forbade the weaving of cloth containing both wool and plant fibers. The shearing of sheep is mentioned even earlier, in Genesis 31:19. Wool was in fact the most common and available fiber known to the people of Israel.
There was a very extensive wool trade in biblical times, stretching from Egypt to China. In the Middle East wool was cheaper than cotton or linen, which were the other common fibers. (Silk was known by the time of Solomon, but it was extremely expensive as it was produced in China and handled by numerous traders on its way west.) It would be a mistake to think of all wool at that time as being white, as Genesis 30 indicates quite clearly that there were also dark colored sheep and sheep that had dark and light patches, probably varying combinations of black, white, and brown.
We can be fairly sure that one breed of sheep known to the Israelites was the Fat-tailed Sheep Ovis laticaudata and that its fatty tail is referred to in Exodus 29:22, Leviticus 3:9 et al.
Rams’ horns had a variety of uses. Whole ram horns were used as drinking vessels, jars, and trumpets. But pieces of horn were used as handles for knives and other household implements, and for jewelry such as bracelets and beads. Needles too, and probably also arrow heads, were made from horn, as well as from bone and later from bronze and iron.
Sheep were also very important in Israelite religion. They were a very important element in the sacrificial system and in the traditional religious feasts, especially the Feast of Passover.
Sheep and goats belong to the same general family. They differ in that sheep produce wool, which is a special type of soft hair, among the ordinary hairs on their bodies. A ram’s horns too differ in shape from a goat’s horns, those of a ram curling down in a tight spiral beside its face, with those of a goat curving more gently back towards its shoulders. The sheep of biblical times produced much shorter wool than is common with wool-bearing breeds of today.
The fat-tailed or broad-tailed sheep is a smallish breed usually brown and white with a very broad tail. Like most other breeds of sheep in the Middle East it has large floppy ears.
Sheep are generally fairly timid animals, lacking the self-confidence and adaptability of goats. While goats will spread out in their search for food and then regroup without much difficulty, sheep become very insecure when they are separated from other sheep and tend to stay bunched together. They thus require a lot of shepherding. In the Middle East the method of shepherding involves training the dominant ram to follow the shepherd. The remaining sheep then follow this dominant ram, which often wears a wooden clapper or a bell. As they feed, the sheep usually keep within earshot of this sound. It is likely that this method is centuries old.
In most modern breeds only male sheep have horns, but in most ancient breeds female sheep had short horns too. This made separating sheep from goats in a single flock more difficult than it is today.
Of all animals the sheep was the most important for the Israelite nation. It had great religious, social, and economic importance.
The metaphor of a lamb is used in the New Testament to refer to Christ, with an emphasis on his being a sacrifice for the sin of the world. This is especially the case in John’s gospel and Revelation. In the latter book the metaphor is introduced in a very striking way. In Revelation 5:5 as the writer is mourning the fact that no one can be found to open the scroll, he is comforted by one of the elders who tells him that “the Lion of the tribe of Judah” has triumphed and can thus open the scroll. Then the writer, expecting to see the Lion, sees instead a Lamb that looks as if it has been killed for sacrifice. The remainder of the book is then concerned with describing the triumph of this Lamb over the forces of evil.
In the gospels Jesus also refers to his disciples as “sheep” and “lambs” (Matthew 10:17; John 10:1 et al.).
The metaphor of the shepherd is extended to God himself who is the ultimate “Shepherd of Israel” (Psalms 23:1; 80:1). Then those who are responsible for the nurture, guidance, ruling, and protection of Israel, be it kings, prophets, or priests, are also likened to shepherds (Isaiah 56:11; Jeremiah 23:4; 49:19; Ezekiel 34:2; Zechariah 10:2).
The Messiah is also called a shepherd (Isaiah 40:11), and Jesus refers to himself as “the good shepherd” (John 10:11). In Hebrews 13:20 he is referred to as “the great shepherd of the sheep” and in 1 Peter 2:25 he is called “the Shepherd and Guardian of your lives”.
In languages that have a word for sheep, it is advisable to translate according to the meanings given above. If possible, the feminine forms should be translated as “female lamb” or “female sheep”. In languages in which sheep are not known, a word has usually been coined or borrowed by the time Bible translation begins, and this word should be used. It is not advisable to substitute another locally well-known animal in this case, since doing so negates the ritual and symbolic importance that sheep had for the biblical cultures.
In translating Psalms 23:1 it is extremely important to make sure that the phrase “my shepherd” preserves the relationship intended by the writer and reflects the psalmist’s theme that Yahweh is his benefactor, protector, and guide. There are really two metaphors involved in the opening verse-the caring shepherd (God) and by clear implication, the dependent sheep (the psalmist). In many languages the literal phrase “my shepherd” depicts a wrong relationship, meaning something like “the one who looks after my sheep” or “the one I employ to watch my sheep.” In many African languages unwary translators have produced a rendering that means “The Chief is (nothing more than) my herdsman.” It is often necessary to restructure the whole verse as something like “I am a sheep, and the lord is my shepherd.”
At the beginning of this verse we recommend a paragraph (so Good News Translation) or stanza break (so Contemporary English Version, New International Version, Revised English Bible, Bible en français courant). The prophet not only changes his imagery here, but he also moves from third person to second person references for the rebellious people of God.
In this verse and the next one there is a reference to oaks and gardens. Here they serve as metaphors for religious rites that took place there. Some background information is needed to understand these metaphors. The “oak” (also known as “terebinth”) is a large tree; it is deciduous, which means it loses its leaves in the winter and regains them in the summer. For this reason it was linked with the ideas of dying and being reborn; these ideas were basic to what are called “fertility religions.” The Canaanite religion was one of these religions. Some of the rites of these religions were practiced under oak trees, where people sacrificed to the gods of the land. So the oak tree was associated with Canaanite religious practices that many Israelites followed. Because of this religious association, New International Version and Revised English Bible render oaks as “sacred oaks.” The Septuagint translates oaks as “idols,” but this rendering is based on a different understanding of the Hebrew root here. Contemporary English Version follows the Septuagint, but it has a better rendering with “trees where you worshiped idols.”
The gardens are associated with the sacred trees; they do not refer to separate cultivated vegetable gardens. The parallel context indicates that they are places where the same Canaanite fertility rites were practiced. These gardens are probably not different from the sacred places under the oak trees (see also 65.3-4; 66.17).
The Hebrew particle rendered For that begins this verse and the next one is better translated “Indeed.” It does not introduce a reason for something here, but it is simply used for emphasis. New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh begins this verse with “Truly,” and Bible en français courant has “Yes.”
You shall be ashamed of the oaks: You will be ashamed refers not only to a sense of guilt and embarrassment but has overtones of condemnation and even of punishment. So Good News Translation has “You will be sorry,” but this seems rather weak. This line does not mean the people will be ashamed of the oak trees themselves, but they will be put to shame by their participation in Canaanite worship under the trees since that worship cannot help them. Making this explicit would probably expand the translation too much (but see Bible en français courant below). Adding “sacred” to oaks may be sufficient to hint at the implied meaning here (see the comments above). If the “oak” tree is not known in the receptor language, oaks may be rendered “[big] sacred trees.” It is better to use a general expression here than the name of a well-known tree in the language. This will avoid the risk of introducing elements in the translation that are foreign to the culture of the Bible.
There is a minor textual issue in this line. Instead of you shall be ashamed, the Hebrew text (supported by Hebrew Old Testament Text Project) reads “they will be ashamed.” All English translations consulted change it to second person since the rest of the verse is in second person. Even New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh uses second person here, but it gives the alternative in a footnote. We suggest using second person here without a footnote.
In which you delighted: Delighted is a person’s reaction to something that is attractive and desirable. The rites practiced under the oak trees were something that the Israelites took pleasure in; there was often sexual activity as in Canaanite religion. This line may be rendered simply “which you enjoyed.”
And you shall blush for the gardens: You shall blush is parallel to you shall be ashamed. It describes a person’s face growing red from embarrassment. It is used here figuratively to refer to shame. A literal translation may not be appropriate in many cultures. Translators should look for an expression meaning “be ashamed,” with or without the image of “blushing.” The word for means “on account of” or “because of,” indicating the reason for the shame of the people. Gardens is parallel to oaks. As noted above, gardens is probably a figurative reference to places of Canaanite worship under the oak trees. They are not ordinary vegetable gardens. Good News Translation adds “sacred” to the word gardens to convey the deeper sense. However, translators should not use “sacred” if it conveys a positive sense.
Which you have chosen indicates the Israelites deliberately chose to participate in Canaanite worship, which means they were not faithful to Yahweh (verse 28). Another way to say this is “where you are determined to worship.”
As Good News Translation often does, the parallel lines in this verse have been collapsed to form a single sentence. Good News Translation states that the trees themselves were worshiped, but the prophet’s rebuke most likely refers to the religious rites that took place under the sacred oaks. Good News Translation also mentions the “planting” of sacred gardens, but there is no evidence for this. So Good News Translation should not be followed here. On the other hand, a literal translation of Revised Standard Version, without any footnote, may be hard to understand. If Good News Translation is taken as a model, translators should at least modify it slightly by saying “You will be ashamed that you ever worshiped under trees and inside sacred gardens.” Bible en français courant (1997) provides a good model for the whole verse as follows: “Yes, you will be humiliated for practicing your rituals under those sacred trees to which you are so much attached; you will be disappointed for having chosen those gardens for your pagan practices.” Other possible models are:
• Truly you will be put to shame
because of your worship at the sacred oak trees,
and you will be embarrassed
because of your preference for the sacred gardens.
• Indeed you will be condemned
because of your delight in worshiping under the sacred oak trees;
you will be embarrassed
on account of your choice of the sacred gardens.
Quoted with permission from Ogden, Graham S. and Sterk, Jan. A Handbook on Isaiah. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2011. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
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