sheep / lamb

Before the time of Abraham at least five breeds of sheep had already been developed in Mesopotamia. From mummified remains (that is, preserved dead bodies) and ancient art it is also known that at least two different breeds had reached Egypt by about 2000 B.C. Thus it is likely that the sheep mentioned in the Bible were of more than one breed.

The Hebrew word kar seems to be used of imported foreign sheep and may refer to a special breed but some scholars think it refers to a wether (castrated ram), since this word is never used in the context of sacrifice. This word is also used for a battering ram, that is, a heavy pole suspended on a rope, used in war for breaking down walls. ’Ayil is the word for a ram or adult male sheep, rachel is a breeding ewe or female sheep, and taleh is a very young lamb, probably still unweaned. The remaining Hebrew words refer to sheep in general.

The Greek word probaton is the general word for sheep, or flocks that may include goats. Krios is the Greek word for a ram or male sheep. Pascha is a technical name for the Passover lamb exclusively, and the remaining Greek words all mean lamb. Ovis is the Latin word for sheep.

Click or tap here for the rest of this entry in United Bible Societies’ All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible.

The early Hebrews were nomadic shepherds to whom sheep were the most important domestic animal. While goats eat almost any vegetation, sheep are much more selective about the grasses and plants they eat. This meant that suitable grazing for them was not always easy to find, and shepherds had to keep moving their flocks from place to place. This led to a nomadic lifestyle, with movable tents rather than houses being the normal household shelter. It was not until the occupation of Canaan after the Exodus that the lifestyle of the Israelites changed, and they became settled village-dwelling farmers and fruit growers.

However, even then, most households owned sheep, and some family members would function as shepherds, often living away from home for fairly long periods.

Sheep in the Bible were a source of meat, milk, wool, hides, and horns, and it seems likely that various strains were bred selectively to enhance production of these commodities. Wool is mentioned in the Bible as early as the Mosaic Law, which forbade the weaving of cloth containing both wool and plant fibers. The shearing of sheep is mentioned even earlier, in Genesis 31:19. Wool was in fact the most common and available fiber known to the people of Israel.

There was a very extensive wool trade in biblical times, stretching from Egypt to China. In the Middle East wool was cheaper than cotton or linen, which were the other common fibers. (Silk was known by the time of Solomon, but it was extremely expensive as it was produced in China and handled by numerous traders on its way west.) It would be a mistake to think of all wool at that time as being white, as Genesis 30 indicates quite clearly that there were also dark colored sheep and sheep that had dark and light patches, probably varying combinations of black, white, and brown.

We can be fairly sure that one breed of sheep known to the Israelites was the Fat-tailed Sheep Ovis laticaudata and that its fatty tail is referred to in Exodus 29:22, Leviticus 3:9 et al.

Rams’ horns had a variety of uses. Whole ram horns were used as drinking vessels, jars, and trumpets. But pieces of horn were used as handles for knives and other household implements, and for jewelry such as bracelets and beads. Needles too, and probably also arrow heads, were made from horn, as well as from bone and later from bronze and iron.

Sheep were also very important in Israelite religion. They were a very important element in the sacrificial system and in the traditional religious feasts, especially the Feast of Passover.

Sheep and goats belong to the same general family. They differ in that sheep produce wool, which is a special type of soft hair, among the ordinary hairs on their bodies. A ram’s horns too differ in shape from a goat’s horns, those of a ram curling down in a tight spiral beside its face, with those of a goat curving more gently back towards its shoulders. The sheep of biblical times produced much shorter wool than is common with wool-bearing breeds of today.

The fat-tailed or broad-tailed sheep is a smallish breed usually brown and white with a very broad tail. Like most other breeds of sheep in the Middle East it has large floppy ears.

Sheep are generally fairly timid animals, lacking the self-confidence and adaptability of goats. While goats will spread out in their search for food and then regroup without much difficulty, sheep become very insecure when they are separated from other sheep and tend to stay bunched together. They thus require a lot of shepherding. In the Middle East the method of shepherding involves training the dominant ram to follow the shepherd. The remaining sheep then follow this dominant ram, which often wears a wooden clapper or a bell. As they feed, the sheep usually keep within earshot of this sound. It is likely that this method is centuries old.

In most modern breeds only male sheep have horns, but in most ancient breeds female sheep had short horns too. This made separating sheep from goats in a single flock more difficult than it is today.

Of all animals the sheep was the most important for the Israelite nation. It had great religious, social, and economic importance.

In the Bible sheep are a common metaphor for the people of Israel and perhaps for people in general. Like sheep the people are seen as easily going astray (Psalms 119:176; Isaiah 53:6; Jeremiah 50:6; 1 Peter 2:25), as being in need of guidance and protection (1 Kings 22:17; 2 Chronicles 18:16; Matthew 9:36; Mark 6:34), as being very defenseless (Isaiah 52:7), and as being destined to an early death (Psalms 44:22; Jeremiah 12:3; Romans 8:36).

The metaphor of a lamb is used in the New Testament to refer to Christ, with an emphasis on his being a sacrifice for the sin of the world. This is especially the case in John’s gospel and Revelation. In the latter book the metaphor is introduced in a very striking way. In Revelation 5:5 as the writer is mourning the fact that no one can be found to open the scroll, he is comforted by one of the elders who tells him that “the Lion of the tribe of Judah” has triumphed and can thus open the scroll. Then the writer, expecting to see the Lion, sees instead a Lamb that looks as if it has been killed for sacrifice. The remainder of the book is then concerned with describing the triumph of this Lamb over the forces of evil.

In the gospels Jesus also refers to his disciples as “sheep” and “lambs” (Matthew 10:17; John 10:1 et al.).

The metaphor of the shepherd is extended to God himself who is the ultimate “Shepherd of Israel” (Psalms 23:1; 80:1). Then those who are responsible for the nurture, guidance, ruling, and protection of Israel, be it kings, prophets, or priests, are also likened to shepherds (Isaiah 56:11; Jeremiah 23:4; 49:19; Ezekiel 34:2; Zechariah 10:2).

The Messiah is also called a shepherd (Isaiah 40:11), and Jesus refers to himself as “the good shepherd” (John 10:11). In Hebrews 13:20 he is referred to as “the great shepherd of the sheep” and in 1 Peter 2:25 he is called “the Shepherd and Guardian of your lives”.

In languages that have a word for sheep, it is advisable to translate according to the meanings given above. If possible, the feminine forms should be translated as “female lamb” or “female sheep”. In languages in which sheep are not known, a word has usually been coined or borrowed by the time Bible translation begins, and this word should be used. It is not advisable to substitute another locally well-known animal in this case, since doing so negates the ritual and symbolic importance that sheep had for the biblical cultures.

In translating Psalms 23:1 it is extremely important to make sure that the phrase “my shepherd” preserves the relationship intended by the writer and reflects the psalmist’s theme that Yahweh is his benefactor, protector, and guide. There are really two metaphors involved in the opening verse-the caring shepherd (God) and by clear implication, the dependent sheep (the psalmist). In many languages the literal phrase “my shepherd” depicts a wrong relationship, meaning something like “the one who looks after my sheep” or “the one I employ to watch my sheep.” In many African languages unwary translators have produced a rendering that means “The Chief is (nothing more than) my herdsman.” It is often necessary to restructure the whole verse as something like “I am a sheep, and the lord is my shepherd.”

Sheep with lamb, photo by Ray Pritz

Source: All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

See also sheep, lamb, and shepherd.

Translation commentary on Ezra 6:9

Whatever is needed: The animals and supplies listed are what were required for the daily sacrifices by the Jews according to the regulations in Leviticus and Numbers. In some languages it may be difficult to express an abstract or unspecified need. It may then be necessary to restate the expression in more direct terms, for example, “whatever the priests ask of you for their work.”

Young bulls were male oxen often three years old; rams were adult male sheep; sheep were either male or female sheep. Here sheep perhaps refers to “lambs” as in Good News Translation (also Bible de Jérusalem, New Jerusalem Bible, Traduction œcuménique de la Bible). Many languages have special terms to designate the male and the female of species of animals. The appropriate words should be used in the receptor language to refer to young bulls and to rams. For sheep or “lambs,” a general term should be used that does not distinguish male and female.

These animals were used for burnt offerings (see Ezra 3.2). They were offered to the God of heaven (see Ezra 1.2).

Wheat, salt, wine and oil were also given as offerings and for libations. All these products were very important in the life of the Israelites and now the Jews (compare Ezra 3.7). Wheat was the grain from which bread was made and this was the Jews’ staple food. Here it refers to the grain itself and not to wheat flour. Wine is fermented juice from grapes, and the oil is from the fruit of olive trees, as Good News Translation makes explicit.

If wine from grapes is not known in the receptor culture, it is sometimes possible to refer to it with a general term for fermented beverages. However, because of the importance of the grapevine and its fruit, the vineyard, and wine in the Old and New Testaments both for food and drink and as a theological symbol, a way must be found to translate these terms. In some geographical locations, a local fruit-bearing vine related to the grapevine may be used. In other cases, it is more appropriate to use borrowed terms. The connotations of these terms, both traditional terms and borrowed terms, must be carefully analyzed by translators to make sure that they are acceptable in biblical use.

The olive tree was also a very important plant, especially for its fruit and for the oil. Olive trees are evergreen trees that bear fruit from which olive oil may be made. They are slow-growing trees that live to more than 1,000 years of age. The trees must be cultivated for seven years before bearing fruit. A full-sized tree produces one-half ton of fruit a year. The fruit has a bitter taste before being processed. Both the fruit and the oil are a staple of every meal in the Mediterranean region. Sometimes translators borrow a word for olive, or they may describe the olive tree as a “tree for oil,” that is, a tree that produces a fruit from which oil is extracted.

For priests see Ezra 1.5.

Let that be given to them day by day without fail: Just as sacrifices were to be performed daily, these animals and supplies were to be provided to the priests day by day or “each day.” The emphasis is not on duration of time, but on providing their needs every day without fail according to the requirements of their religion (see Ezra 3.4).

Quoted with permission from Noss, Philip A. and Thomas, Kenneth J. A Handbook on Ezra. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2005. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .