The Hebrew that is translated as “offering” in English is translated in Venda as nduvho. J. A. van Rooy (in The Bible Translator 1974, p. 439ff. ) explains: “It is derived from the verb u luvha (‘to pay homage to; to acknowledge the superiority of; at the same time usually asking for a favour’). It is sometimes used as a synonym for ‘asking something from a chief. The noun nduvho means ‘a gift of allegiance,’ which corresponds closely with minchah (מִנְחָה) as ‘offering of allegiance.’ This term nduvho has in it the elements of subjugation, of reciprocity (asking for a favor), of being taken up into the same community as the chief in allegiance to him. Only the element of expiation is missing.”
In Northern Emberá, it is translated as “given to God freely.” (Source: Loewen 1980, p. 108)
The Greek and Hebrew that is translated with “mule” in English is translated in Swahili with nyumbu which also is a homonym for “wildebeest,” potentially causing confusion.
In Kutu it is translated with “big donkey” because there is no other adequate term in Kutu. (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
In the HausaCommon Language Bible it is translated jakin-doki or “donkey-horse,” since mules are also not known in Nigeria. (Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
The word pirdah refers to the female mule while pered can refer to either the male or the female. In biblical times mules were used for riding and as pack animals while horses were mainly used to pull military chariots. They appear to have been introduced into Canaan much later than horses. Mules are not mentioned in the Bible until the time of David while horses are mentioned in the Joseph story and in Deuteronomy 17:16 where the king is forbidden to acquire them. Technically the owning of mules was not prohibited although the breeding of them would have fallen under the prohibition of Leviticus 19:19, which forbade the cross-breeding of animals. The Israelites thus seem to have relied on mules imported from neighboring countries.
The mule is not an animal found naturally anywhere, but is the result of people breeding male donkeys with female horses. It is also possible to breed male horses with female donkeys, but the offspring, technically called “hinnies”, not “mules”, are usually smaller than mules. Mules are bigger and stronger than donkeys and are much more resistant to disease than either horses or donkeys. They are usually dark brown with bigger ears than the parent horse.
Although there are male and female mules they are infertile and not able to breed. This makes the stronger males much easier to handle than stallions.
Although the mule in English is associated with stubbornness this is not usually the case in other cultures since mules are very easy to handle if treated properly. In Psalms 32:9 the mule is linked to the horse as both being animals that lack sufficient understanding and need to be guided in the right direction.
Even in languages of societies that know mules, they are often referred to as “horse-donkeys”, or “donkey-horses”. This seems to be a good translation solution even in languages that have no word for mule.
The Hebrew word bosem, which is often rendered “balm” (derived from “balsam”), can refer to any type of aromatic healing substance, but it also designates the product of a particular tree, the balsam or opobalsamum Commiphora gileadensis. Arabs call it balasam or balasham. In the Talmud it is called afarsimon. Excavations near En Gedi have uncovered an ancient processing plant for balsam oil.
The opobalsamum tree likes a desert or semi-desert climate. It grows to 2‑3 meters (7‑10 feet) tall and has small, wrinkled, three-part leaves, white flowers, and pea-sized red berries that have a fragrant yellow seed inside. The bark of younger branches is gray, turning brown with age. The resin appears by itself in green droplets from the stems and branches, but collectors also make cuts in the branches to speed the process. The droplets turn from green to brown, clump together, and fall to the ground, where they are collected.
In Bible times, balsam oil was used in holy anointing oil, as medicine, and as an ingredient of perfume.
A generic word or phrase for sweet-smelling substances is appropriate to render bosem, although where a specific name for the balsam tree is available, as in southwestern Arabia and Somalia, this could also be used. At least one hundred species of the genus Commiphora are spread throughout dry areas of the world. Translators in some areas will know the plants; others may know only the dried resin of Commiphora sold in spice markets.
The different Hebrew and Greek terms that are translated as “(olive) oil” and “(animal) fat” in English are translated in Kwere with only one term: mavuta. (Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of 1 Kings 10:25:
Kupsabiny: “Those people would bring gifts of greeting for Solomon every year. They would bring items of silver and of gold, beautiful clothes, weapons/metals for war, sweet-smelling things, horses and donkeys.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Newari: “Year after year those who came to him would bring silver utensils and gold, clothes, weapons, perfume, spices, horses and mules as gifts.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “Every year, everyone who visited him brought gifts — things/articles which-is made of silver and gold, clothes, weapons, spices, horses, and mules.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
English: “All the people who came to him brought presents: They brought things made from silver or gold, or robes, or weapons (OR, myrrh), or spices, or horses, or mules. The people continued to do this every year.” (Source: Translation for Translators)
Every one of them refers to all those people who came from other parts of the world to see Solomon.
The Hebrew noun rendered present sometimes refers to offerings or sacrifices. Revised Standard Version translates this same noun as “cereal offering” in 1 Kgs 8.64. In non-religious contexts, it may refer to tribute imposed on other rulers. In this context the noun seems to refer to gifts that were voluntarily given.
The word translated articles represents the same Hebrew word that is translated “vessels” in verse 21. The word rendered garments probably, technically, refers to articles of outer clothing rather than to clothing in general. For this reason several versions translate “robes” (Good News Translation, New Jerusalem Bible, New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh).
Myrrh was a sweet-smelling powder that was highly prized. It was used in perfumes, served as a medicine, and was used in preparing bodies for burial. Information about such items may be given in a footnote or explained in a glossary. There is some question regarding the meaning of the Hebrew noun translated myrrh. It most likely means “weapons” (Good News Translation, New International Version, New American Bible, New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh, New Living Translation), “weaponry” (New Revised Standard Version), “arms” (Anchor Bible, Bible en français courant, Parole de Vie, Nouvelle Bible Segond), “armour” (New Jerusalem Bible), or “armament” (De Vries), but some interpreters think the noun comes from an Arabic root with the same consonants, meaning “to smell.” The Septuagint translated it as “myrrh,” as does Revised Standard Version, and some other modern translations say “perfumes” (Revised English Bible).
Spices: See the comments on verse 2.
Mules: See the comments on 1 Kgs 1.33.
So much year by year: These gifts were presented annually. New American Bible moves this clause near the beginning of the verse, saying “yearly tribute.”
Quoted with permission from Omanson, Roger L. and Ellington, John E. A Handbook on 1-2 Kings, Volume 1. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2008. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
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