Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

All verses in chapter 1 have three units of parallelism (except 1.7, which has four). The first half-line of each unit is identified in both Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation by its initial capital letter: How, How, She, and “How,” “Once,” “The.”

In all three units of verse 1, the poet contrasts the condition of Jerusalem as it is now, with what the city formerly was. In the first two units the present condition is described in the first half-line, and the former condition in the second half-line. However, in the third unit that order is reversed, with the former status (was a princess) described in the first half-line, and the present condition (become a vassal) in the second half-line. Not only is the poet contrasting “now” with “then,” but by reversing the order in the last unit, a structural contrast is created within the verse. Moreover there is a good bit of matching of meaning between like a widow has she become and has become a vassal, also between great among the nations and princess among the cities. This parallelism of meaning, it should be noticed, occurs between the half-lines of different units rather than between half-lines within the same unit. Good News Translation follows the same order, except in the second unit, where the past condition is placed first; Good News Translation does this apparently for stylistic reasons.

In some languages it may be clearer to reverse the “now … then” order in the first two units so that they conform to the pattern of the third unit. In this way all three units depict the past as occurring before the present. For example:

Jerusalem that was once full of people is now lonely;
she who was once great among the nations is now like a widow;
she who was like a princess is now like a slave.

How … that was: How is the first Hebrew word in the first sentence and serves as the title for the whole book in its Hebrew form. The same word occurs also at the beginning of chapters 2 and 4 and is found in Jeremiah 48.17c and in Isaiah 1.21, where Jerusalem is also described as a woman. The expression serves here to stress the contrast between the past and the present. In many languages this exclamation must be rendered by a clause. For example, “Look, how awful it is” or “It is a very terrible thing.” The same expression may sometimes be rendered idiomatically; for example, “I say this with tears” or “I say this with my heart failing.” In some languages it may be clearer to mark the contrasts between the present sufferings and the past glories by saying, for example, “In earlier times,” “In the past,” or “Before Jerusalem was defeated.”

Sits the city makes the city appear as a person. In some languages it is possible to employ a verb such as sit only with an animate subject. Therefore it may be necessary to say “The city is very empty” or “There are no people in the city.”

The term lonely refers here to the lack of people, or to being deserted by those who once lived there. It may sometimes be translated figuratively; for example, “having only one word left,” “with no one to talk to,” “with only one dog for a friend.”

City refers to the city of Jerusalem, which in modern terms would be more like a village or town. Although today most people are acquainted with noisy modern cities, it may be better to speak of the “town,” if such a category exists in the translator’s language. Good News Translation says “How lonely lies Jerusalem.” This is to make clear that city refers only to the city of Jerusalem and not to some other city.

The expression full of people makes it clear that a population center is in focus. Full of people is an expression of relative degree. A term used in translation should not give the idea that it was so full that there was no space not taken up by people. The sense is “with very many people” or “having a large number of people.”

The expression like a widow compares Jerusalem to a wife who has lost her husband. This may imply that Yahweh has deserted her—a thought that is expanded in verse 2. The picture of a widow is used to emphasize the misery of Jerusalem compared with her previous greatness. The same is true in the last unit of verse 1, where Jerusalem is compared to a slave. If the term widow must be replaced by a descriptive phrase, it may be possible to say “like a miserable woman whose husband has died.” If a nonfigurative expression must be used in place of widow, it may be possible to say, for example, “Jerusalem was a great city, but now is as miserable as a woman whose husband has died.” A further translation decision is whether to keep the third person reference or to change to a more personal second person. If the second person is preferred, the translator should use it consistently.

She that was great among the nations: nations translates the Hebrew term goyim, a word that is sometimes applied to the gentiles or pagan people. For example, in Exodus 34.24, “I will cast out nations (goyim) before you, and enlarge your borders.” The term is also used to refer to the descendants of Abraham in Genesis 12.2, “I will make of you a great nation….” In verse 1 there is no attempt to contrast Israel with the non-Israelites, and so nations refers to all the political groupings, among which Israel was one. Good News Translation “honored by the world” expresses this well.

Princess among the cities refers to the high status of Jerusalem in contrast with the servant status of vassal in the following half-line. The term does not mean the daughter of a king but rather a noble lady, or the wife of a noble or leader among the people. Good News Translation “noblest of cities” may need to be reworded to say, for example, “Before you were like a princess” or, as Bible en français courant says, “Yesterday a princess ruling the provinces, but now reduced to….”

Vassal translates a word which suggests forced labor imposed upon a conquered people, and so Good News Translation “fallen into slavery.” New English Bible has “now put to forced labour.” In some languages it is possible to maintain the figurative language of this unit by saying, for example, “You were like the rich daughter of the chief, but now you have become like the poorest slave” or “You who were like a great princess have now become like a poor servant.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

In this verse the imagery of weeping and tears continues the theme of sorrow. The first two half-lines of the verse are parallel in meaning. The verb weeps is sometimes followed in the second line by the verb “shed tears”; see Jeremiah 13.17, “run down with tears.” Here the second half-line contains only the noun tears. However, the sense is the same as if “shed tears” was used. This movement from a general verb in the first half-line to a more precise expression in the second half-line gives a sense of increasing the force or intensity of the first unit. Translators who seek to translate in poetic terms should follow the rules of poetic style in their own language to provide for intensification within the second half-line, if such intensification is not expressed adequately by the particular selection of words.

She weeps bitterly in the night: bitterly refers to the resentful nature and intensity of her weeping. In the night refers to the extent of her weeping. That is, “she weeps throughout the entire night” or, as Good News Translation says, “all night long she cries.”

Tears on her cheeks represents the picturable or dramatic rephrasing of the first half-line. In simple prose terms the whole unit says “She weeps bitterly all night long so that tears are on her cheeks.” If the translator is unable to retain the repetition of parallelism, it may be possible to replace it here by relating the two similar statements by a logical connective; for example, “Because she cries all night long, her cheeks are wet with her tears.”

The remaining units in verse 2 provide the reason for Jerusalem’s weeping. In some languages it may be necessary to introduce them with “this is because” or “this is the reason.”

Among all her lovers: lovers translates a word which carries the sense of an irregular relation a man has with a woman to whom he is not married. It is used in Ezekiel 16.33 with reference to Jerusalem’s political allies, and in Hosea 2.5 with reference to Israel’s worship of Baal. In the present context it draws attention to Jerusalem’s faithlessness to the LORD, her true husband. Lovers, which is used figuratively, emphasizes Jerusalem’s female image. In some languages it will be necessary to make it clear that lovers refers to a temporary relationship. This may sometimes be expressed as, for example, “her male friends” or “those who made love to her.”

It is also possible to translate lovers as “allies, friends, friendly nations.” If the translator follows Good News Translation “allies,” this may be expressed sometimes as “friendly countries” or “other tribes who were friendly to her.”

None to comfort her: comfort refers to the act of encouraging or cheering someone who has become discouraged or saddened. The thought is sometimes expressed as “strengthen, cheer up, cause to recover.” In many languages to comfort someone who is distressed is expressed idiomatically; for example, “to give them back their heart,” “to make their heart strong again,” “to quiet the shaking of their insides.” This unit may sometimes be rendered “None of her former lovers is able to cheer her up” or “None of those who made love to her will give her new courage.”

All her friends is parallel in meaning with all her lovers and refers to her political allies. Those, of course, are friends she used to have but who are no longer friends, and this may need to be made clear in translation. Dealt treacherously translates a Hebrew verb meaning “to deal faithlessly with” and is used in relation to Israel’s unfaithfulness to the LORD in Hosea 8.9-10; Ezekiel 16.28-29. Good News Translation translates “Her allies have betrayed her.” “Betray” refers to being handed over to someone else’s authority or control, against a person’s own wishes and through a breach of trust. “Betray” is sometimes expressed as “to sell a friend to his enemy” or “to turn one’s face away from a friend.” The poet’s allusion to enemies is probably to 2 Kings 24, in which the LORD sent Babylonians, Syrians, Moabites and Ammonites against King Jehoiakim to destroy Judah.

Her enemies: enemies refers to those who are opposed to Jerusalem. These include those who made war against her as well as those who opposed her more passively. Languages do not lack for terms for enemies, but sometimes they express the idea idiomatically; for example, “those who fight against her” or “those who turn away from her.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

Judah has gone into exile: Judah serves to widen the perspective. It is the entire nation or kingdom that suffers exile, not just the city of Jerusalem. The reference is to the people of Judah, as in Good News Translation. In translation it is important to avoid the impression that the poet has left off speaking of Jerusalem and has begun a new subject called Judah. Accordingly it may be advisable to speak of “Jerusalem in the region of Judah” or “Judah, the region around Jerusalem.” In many languages it will be necessary to speak of the people of the area. In that case we may say, for example, “The people of Judah, where Jerusalem is.” The same principle will apply in verse 4, where Zion refers to Jerusalem.

Translators will notice a difference in translation between Revised Standard Version gone into exile because of affliction and Good News Translation “helpless slaves, forced away from home.” The reason for this difference is that the Hebrew verb translated gone into exile may be understood as either active or passive. Revised Standard Version takes it to be active and consequently gives the impression that Judah went voluntarily into exile because of the afflictions she suffered at home. This interpretation agrees with the alternative given in the Good News Translation footnote but does not accord with the rest of chapter 1. The Good News Translation text rendering is to be preferred.

Gone into exile may be expressed as in Good News Translation “forced away from home”; or we may say, for example, “The people were taken as prisoners to other countries” or “Their enemies forced them to go and live in other lands.”

She dwells now among the nations means that Judah is living, not in her own land, but rather in the lands of foreigners. Here nations, in contrast to its use in verse 1, refers to the non-Israelite peoples. Bible en français courant and others translate “pagans.” Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch says “and must live among foreign people.” Another interpretation, which is followed by the Anchor Bible (AB), is that this is a reference to the time before the exile, when Judah was an independent nation like other nations. However, it seems preferable to understand this statement as describing Judah’s present situation, and so a rendering such as Good News Translation, Bible en français courant, and Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch is to be preferred.

Finds no resting place: for many years Judah had been the battleground between Assyria, Egypt, and Babylon, who all threatened her independence. Judah had therefore failed to enjoy the security or “rest” to which she looked forward, having, as Good News Translation says, “no place to call their own.” The poet uses the idea of “the rest” which Israel had been promised in Deuteronomy 12.9, “you have not as yet come to the rest … which the LORD your God gives you” (Revised Standard Version), as well as the lack of “rest” mentioned in Deuteronomy 28.65. The focus is on the absence of peace and security experienced by the people of Judah even before the capture of Jerusalem, and this situation is also summarized in the last unit of the verse. In some languages resting place may be rendered “a place where people farm their own lands,” “a place where people eat from their own gardens,” or “a place where people’s hearts are always cool.”

Her pursuers have all overtaken her: pursuers refers to her “enemies, persecutors.” The picture is of her enemies chasing Judah in order to catch her and strike her down. They have been successful and have overtaken her, that is, “caught her, seized her,” and all of this in the midst of her distress. This last expression translates what is literally “between the straits.” This expression is used only here, and so the meaning is not fully certain. The reference is probably to a military pursuit, in which a fleeing army is driven into a narrow pass where movement is slow and difficult, and this results in its capture and defeat. Translators may follow Revised Standard Version, but Good News Translation, which speaks of “no way to escape,” is probably more accurate.

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

Verse 4 expands the picture of Jerusalem’s suffering by focusing now on the disappearance of worship in the Temple. The Hebrew text, as represented by Revised Standard Version, says The roads to Zion mourn. The thought is that the roads that were once filled with worshipers are now desolate and empty. These roads led to the holy hill of Zion, where the Temple stood.

It may be necessary to modify the description of roads mourning and say, for example, “The roads to Zion are as people who mourn for their dead.” In some languages this would imply that the roads are noisy places filled with wailing mourners. However, as the second half-line points out, it is the absence of people walking along the roads on their way to the Temple that makes even the roads mourn. Good News Translation says “no one comes to the Temple.” Accordingly it may be necessary to say, for example, “The empty roads that lead to the Temple at Mount Zion are sad, like mourners at a burial.”

The names “Zion,” “Jerusalem,” and “Temple” are used interchangeably in Lamentations. Translators should make clear that Zion is the same as Jerusalem, or more exactly the Temple in Jerusalem; in fact they may wish to replace Zion with “Temple,” as in Good News Translation. “Temple,” as used here, is the place where God is worshiped in Jerusalem, and is considered to be his dwelling or building. In some languages “Temple” may be translated “the holy house,” “the holy building,” “house of God,” or “house where people worship God.”

Appointed feasts is literally “appointed,” but the reference is to the great festival times in the Old Testament. Good News Translation calls these “holy days,” and New English Bible “sacred feasts.” In languages in which appointed feasts would simply mean “scheduled eating and drinking,” it will be necessary to provide the idea of worship; for example, “the days when people came to worship” or “on the special days when people thanked God in the Temple.”

All her gates are desolate: it is not certain whether these are the gates of the city wall or the entrances to the Temple. Good News Translation and others make it clear that these are the “city gates.” Others translating more formally keep her gates. During the celebration of the great festivals of Israel, the worshipers would come crowding through both the city gates and the Temple entrances. Bible en français courant takes her gates to refer to the meeting area inside the city gates and translates “her public squares.” The word gates may sometimes be translated as “the entry place” or “where people went in and out of the city.” The word translated desolate, when used in reference to land or a place, means to be empty, without people, deserted.

Her priests groan: in a similar passage in Joel 1.9, the priests mourn at the destruction of the countryside. Since the priests are no longer present in the Temple, it may be assumed that they groan in captivity. A priest is one who is primarily engaged in leading the rituals of religion. In some societies where there are no priests, it may be necessary to substitute a local term, if it is acceptable. Whether or not this can be done successfully depends on the reaction of the people and their association with men of these professions. If it is felt that local terms designating the leader of the religious cult give a wrong impression, translators may sometimes speak of “the one who makes sacrifices,” where such practice is known, or say “the officer of the Temple” or “the one who functions in the house of God.”

Her maidens have been dragged away: maidens is literally “virgins,” but in English and many other languages the word “virgin” focuses upon a girl’s lack of sexual experience. Accordingly a more general term such as Good News Translation “girls” is more satisfactory. Like the priest these young women had a part to play in the regular Temple worship, as suggested in Psalm 68.25. Revised Standard Version assumes the Hebrew verb translated “afflicted” was originally dragged away, and so changes the verb on this basis. See Revised Standard Version footnote. Good News Translation does not change the word and so has “The girls … suffer.” Good News Translation “who sang there” further identifies these girls, who would otherwise have no expressed association with the Temple.

And she herself suffers bitterly: suffers has been supplied by Revised Standard Version but is required in the context. Just as “her” in the previous unit refers to “Zion” (the Temple), so also does she in the final half-line. Bible en français courant translates the final half-line as a summary statement, “How bitter all that is for Zion,” which may be recommended to translators. Suffer is sometimes translated “to have pain” or “to hurt with grief.”

Good News Translation has rearranged the second and third pair of half-lines of the Hebrew in verse 4 so as to bring together the description of the “girls who sang” and “the priests,” both of whose activities are related to the act of worship. The final line of Good News Translation then puts together “the city gates” and “Zion.” The effect of this reordering of the lines is to give greater coherence to the related parts of the verse.

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

The first two units of verse 5 contrast Jerusalem’s powerful enemies with the suffering of the defeated city. Her occurs five times with reference to Jerusalem (or, Zion). Good News Translation makes this reference to Zion clear by placing that name in the final line of verse 4. The translator must examine the repeated use of the pronoun her and decide whether or not it will be clearer in some cases to say “Jerusalem’s” or “of Jerusalem.”

Her foes have become the head is a literal translation of the Hebrew. The meaning is that Jerusalem’s enemies have triumphed and defeated her. Good News Translation “succeeded” implies that her enemies have succeeded in conquering her. Bible en français courant translates “Her enemies have got the upper hand,” Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch “The enemies are at the peak of their fortune,” and New English Bible “Her adversaries have become her masters.” This use of head may be picking up the thought of Deuteronomy 28.44, which Revised Standard Version translates “He shall be the head and you shall be the tail.”

Her enemies prosper translates the Hebrew for “her enemies are at ease,” which New English Bible renders “her enemies take their ease.” This means that they scarcely need to exert themselves to conquer Jerusalem, since their victory is given to them by God. The poet clearly looks at the conquest of Jerusalem as a fulfillment of the warnings of the prophets. This half-line may also be rendered, for example, “It is easy for Jerusalem’s enemies to win their battles.”

Because the LORD has made her suffer provides the reason why her enemies prosper. In some languages “to cause to suffer” is expressed as “because the LORD punished her.” For the translation of suffer see verse 4.

LORD translates in English the four Hebrew letters YHWH, which represent the personal name of the God of the Israelites.

For the multitude of her transgressions gives the reason for Jerusalem’s suffering. The word translated transgressions and “sins” (Good News Translation) carries a strong element of disobedience and willful rebellion and is sometimes used to refer to political rebellions. If the idea of rebellion is to be stressed, we may sometimes say, for example, “because the people of Jerusalem disobeyed God” or “because Jerusalem turned away from God.” Some languages say idiomatically “The people of Jerusalem made their livers hard toward God.” It may be necessary in translation to make the cause-effect relation clearer than in Good News Translation; for example, “God has made Jerusalem suffer because she has sinned” or “Jerusalem suffers because of her sins. God makes her suffer.”

Her children is taken by nearly all translations to refer to the young offspring of the inhabitants of Jerusalem. To speak of her children … gone away gives the impression that they have left voluntarily, which is hardly the case. Good News Translation “have been captured and taken away” may suggest the picture of children being pursued and caught. Good News Translation translates a similar Hebrew expression in Deuteronomy 28.41, “they will be taken away as prisoners of war,” which is also a good model for translation in this verse. In languages which do not have a general term for children, it is usually possible to say “her sons and daughters” or “Jerusalem’s sons and daughters.”

Captives before the foe: in Deuteronomy 28.36, 63-68 it is the LORD who leads the rebellious nation of Israel away into captivity for breaking the covenant. The last pair of half-lines of verse 5 depict the children of Jerusalem being led away by their captors. The final half-line seems to indicate that these children are forced to march off into captivity, perhaps like sheep driven before their captors. This suggests that the children are old enough to be led away. Captives are persons captured, seized, imprisoned by conquering armies. We may translate “Her children have become prisoners of war and have been taken away” or “The enemy has taken away the children of Jerusalem as prisoners of war.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

The expression daughter of Zion expands again the poet’s terms referring to the city of Jerusalem. This expression is found throughout Lamentations and also in Isaiah 1.8; 10.32; Jeremiah 4.31. The parallel expressions “daughter of Judah” and “daughter of my people” are also used in Lamentations. All of these expressions serve poetically to picture Jerusalem as a woman. A literal rendering of daughter of Zion must usually be avoided so as not to confuse the reader. In such cases it is better to say “Jerusalem,” as in Good News Translation.

Her majesty and Good News Translation “splendor of Jerusalem” appear to refer to the glory of the former rulers and not particularly to Jerusalem’s external beauty. However, the latter meaning may also be included, since the term is very general. It is often translated by words meaning “pomp,” “honor,” “glory,” and “beauty.” The honor, splendor, glory of Jerusalem is gone. She has it no longer because she has been conquered and defiled by a pagan nation. Good News Translation “The splendor of Jerusalem is a thing of the past” is a good translation model. We may also say, for example, “All the things that made Jerusalem great have gone,” “The greatness of Zion exists no longer,” “Zion no longer has any greatness.”

Her princes refers to the rulers or leaders of Jerusalem who held civil authority. This may sometimes be translated, for example, “the chiefs of Jerusalem” or “those who ruled the city.”

Have become like harts: Jerusalem’s leaders are compared to male “deer” (Good News Translation). The point of the comparison is that they are hunted down, are weak and exhausted. In some areas the translation of harts or “deer” will require substituting another wild animal that eats grass and is hunted. In areas where pastures are unknown, it will often be necessary to say, for example, “They are like deer that are weak and have no grass to eat” or “They are weak and hungry, like an animal that finds no food.”

They fled without strength: they refers to the princes or rulers who have been compared to deer. Before the pursuer is parallel in meaning and form to “before the foe” in the final half-line of verse 5. Pursuer, in the context of the deer, refers to “hunters,” as in Good News Translation. The children are led away, perhaps like sheep, while the rulers are hunted down to be killed like deer.

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

This verse is exceptional in that the Hebrew text has eight half-lines instead of the six half-lines in each of the other verses in this chapter. Accordingly some scholars propose deleting one pair; however, there is little agreement on which pair should be dropped. Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation retain all the lines. Good News Translation‘s first line corresponds to the whole of the first half of the verse in Hebrew. Most modern translations retain all eight half-lines, and users of this Handbook are encouraged to do the same.

Jerusalem remembers …: Jerusalem is pictured as a person recalling the past. In languages in which Jerusalem remembers is not natural, it will be necessary to say, for example, “The people of Jerusalem remember” or “Those who lived in Jerusalem remember.” In some languages it will be necessary to place the subordinate clause first; for example, “During the time of her suffering and wandering…” or “While the people of Jerusalem suffered and wandered….”

In the days … bitterness refers to the time when the thoughts of the people turn to the days of old or the former great times. Revised Standard Version has changed the Hebrew word for “wandering” to bitterness. See Revised Standard Version footnote. The Hebrew Old Testament Text Project (Hebrew Old Testament Text Project) gives “wandering” an “A” rating, meaning that this word is without doubt the original sense, and so recommends “and of her wandering.”

All the precious things that were hers from days of old are the things the people of Jerusalem remember. These things are not specified, but she has had them for a very long time. Bible en français courant translates “Jerusalem remembers all that was precious from a long time ago.” Good News Translation shortens the expression and calls these “her ancient splendor,” in order to relate this line to the first half-line in verse 6.

When her people fell into the hand of the foe states the event that caused these precious things to become memories. Fell into the hand of the foe is a figure of speech meaning to be conquered, defeated by the enemy. This expression may sometimes be translated “When the enemies conquered them,” “When they were defeated by their enemies,” or “When the enemies defeated Jerusalem’s people.”

None to help her: that is, there was no nation to help Jerusalem; this may also be understood in a general sense that not even God helped her, and so we may translate “there was no one to help fight against Jerusalem’s enemies.”

The foe gloated over her: gloated translates the verb “see,” which is also used in Psalm 22.17, “they stare and gloat over me.” In the context this is a special way of seeing or staring at the defeated enemy. Gloat means to stare with joy at someone who is suffering. The one who stares in this way experiences evil satisfaction. In some languages this may be translated “the enemy smiled when they saw how the people of Jerusalem suffered” or “Jerusalem’s enemies laughed when they saw how she suffered.”

Mocking at her downfall: mocking translates the Hebrew for “they laughed.” This laughter, like the gloating in the previous half-line, is a wicked laughter that rejoices at the sight of someone else’s misfortune. Good News Translation “Her conquerors laughed at her downfall” is a good translation model. Downfall means “defeat,” “destruction,” “loss.” Another model is “those who defeated Jerusalem laughed at her.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .